Monthly 0.6 2017-09-23 monthly 0.6 monthly 0.6. 0.6 2017-09-23 monthly 0.6 2017-09-23. History of Indonesian Independence Learning Media Using. Interactive Story Telling For Elementary Schools. Based on Android Platform. Software Engineering: A Practitioners Approach. Fuzzy Logic With Engineering Applications. John Wiley & Sons.

Free Download Program Buku Pemasaran Philip Kotler Edisi 13. 443 × 600 - 53k - jpg slideshare.net Manajemen Pemasaran Principles of Marketing Philip Kotler & Gary Arms 638 × 479 - 61k - jpg pt.scribd.com 2014 05 STTSS.pdf Class & Inequality Economic Inequality 768 × 1024 - 49k researchgate.net INTERNATIONAL DIASPORA AND TOURISM: RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN.

Ade Sukma Mulya, Ina Sukaesih, Nur Hasyim Politeknik Negeri Jakarta Abstract This is a multiyear research with the purposes of establishing a translation model for economics texbooks from English to Bahasa Indonesia. In the first year, the research focused on the translation product analysis to investigate the quality of the translation. The research employed descriptive-qualitative approach for multiple cases. The data gathered from Marketing Management and Fundamentals of Financial Management textbooks, The data gathered from the textbooks are obtained through content analysis, results of questionnaires filled in by informants and in-depth interview.

The findings of the research indicate that: the translation model pertains with source language, the translation process including the message equivalence, and the use of ideology, methods and techniques of translation, the output ( the target language), and the outcome (the qualitry) including the aspects of accuracy, acceptabilitry, and the readibility. The analysis of the translation products show that the translation of the sentences in the Marketing Management textbook is mostly accurate. Key words: economics textbooks, translation accuracy, translation model, accuracy, acceptability, and readibility aspects Abstrak Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menyusun model penerjemahan untuk buku teks bidang ekonomi dari bahasa Inggris ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Pada tahun pertama, penelitian diarahkan pada analisis produk terjemahan untuk mengetahui kualitas terjemahan. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif kualitatif dengan kasus ganda. Analisis konten digunakan terhadap data yang diperoleh dari dokumen (buku teks Marketing Management dan Fundamentals of Financial Management), hasil kuesioner dan interview mendalam dengan informan. Temuan yang diperoleh pada tahun pertama menghasilkan model terjemahan yang meliputi bahasa sumber, proses penerjemahan yang mencakup kesepadanan pesan dan penggunaan ideologi, metode dan teknik penerjemahan, output (hasil terjemahan dalam bahasa sasaran), dan outcome (kualitas terjemahan) yang mencakup keakuratan, keberterimaan dan keterbacaan.

Analisis terhadap aspek keakuratan memperlihatkan bahwa terjemahan buku teks Marketing Management sebagian besar akurat. Kata kunci: buku teks ekonomi, keakuratan terjemahan, model terjemahan, aspek keakuratan, keberterimaan, keterbacaan Banyak karya pengalihbahasakan buku teks dari bahasa Inggris ke bahasa Indonesia yang beredar luas di masyarakat, khususnya di perguruan tinggi. Berdasarkan hasil studi awal penelitian diketahui bahwa dalam beberapa kasus pengalihbahasaan terdapat kekeliruan atau ketidaksesuaian dengan prinsip-prinsip teori terjemahan. Kekeliruan yang dilakukan oleh sejumlah penerjemah ketika mengalihbahasakan buku teks dapat merugikan para pembaca dari buku terjemahan tersebut, yang semula buku terjemahan dapat membantu memahami buku teks, tetapi faktanya sebaliknya, buku terjemahan malah menyesatkan para pembaca. Dari alasan tersebut di atas, peneliti tertarik untuk menyusun suatu model pengalihan bahasa buku teks sehingga dapat bermanfaat untuk menghasilkan karya terjemahan yang berkualitas.

Untuk menghasilkan terjemahan yang berkualitas perlu adanya sutau model yang dapat menuntun penerjemah dalam mengalihkan bahasa sumber ke bahasa sasaran. Setelah model tersusun, kemudian model tersebut diimplementasikan untuk mengungkap kualitas terjemahan buku Management Marketing, dan Fundamentals of Financial Management.

Berdasarkan fokus penelitian di atas, peneliti fokus pada penyusunan model pengalihan bahasa yang dihasilkan dari berbagai kajian teori penerjemahan, kemudian model tersebut digunakan menganalisis kualitas terjemahan pada aspek keakuratan pengalihan pesan dari bahasa sumber ke bahasa sasaran. Studi awal terhadap buku terjemahan Marketing Management, dan Fundamentals of Financial Management ditemukan beberapa hasil terjemahan dari bahasa sumber (Bsu) ke bahasa sasaran (Bsa) yang menurut peneliti tidak tepat, seperti contoh berikut ini. Bsu: Companies selling mass consumer goods and services such as soft drinks, cosmetics, air travel, and athletic shoes and equipment spend a great deal time trying to establish a superior brand image.

Bsa: Perusahaan yang menjual barang-barang kebutuhan konsumen dan jasa dalam jumlah besar; seperti minuman ringan, kosmetik, penerbangan, sepatu, dan peralatan olah raga, serta menghabiskan banyak waktu untuk mencoba mengembangkan citra merek yang unggul. Dari hasil terjemahan di atas telah terjadi pergeseran makna karena penerjemah menambahkan kata tambahan serta sebelum kata kerja utama, yang seharusnya tidak perlu, sehingga membuat terjemahan itu tidak sepadan. Kata spend pada kalimat di atas adalah kata kerja utama sehingga memiliki peran yang sangat penting, tetapi karena penerjemah menambahkan kata serta menghabiskan, sehingga mengaburkan makna dari kata kerja utama tersebut. Penerjemah menerjemahkan mass consumer goods and services adalah barang-barang kebututuhan dan jasa dalam jumlah besar. Goods and services; goods diterjemahkan barang-barang, seharusnya barang; services diterjemahkan jasa sehingga goods and services terjemahannya adalah barang dan jasa.

Mass consumer diterjemahkan kebutuhan konsumen, padahal tidak terdapat kata kebutuhan pada bahasa sumber, sehingga terjadi pergeseran makna, dan seharusnya diterjemahkan konsumen dalam jumlah besar, sehingga untuk menerjemahkan mass consumer goods and services adalah barang dan jasa untuk konsumen massal. Selanjutnya a great deal time trying to establish a superior brand image diterjemahkan banyak waktu untuk mencoba mengembangkan citra merek yang unggul, penerjemah menambahkan kata pengembangan, padahal tidak ada kata itu dalam teks aslinya.

Kata pengembangan yang ditambahkan oleh penerjemah juga tidak tepat, dan justru mengubah makna menjadi tidak sepadan. By Sugeng Hariyanto (State Polyetchnic of Malang) Abstract Translation industry is developing very fast with the economic globalization and digital/internet technology development. Unfortunately, the teaching of translation in universities has not adopted techniques that can response this situation. This paper aims to propose a translation teaching technique to train the students to produce target texts demanded in the translation business. The technique is proposed by considering two influential concepts in translation theory, i.e., Text Linguistics and Skopos Theory.

Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. Text linguistics takes into account the form of a text and its setting, i.e. The way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. In relation to translation, it can be said that translation is not only the business of analyzing the source text sentence by sentence. Instead, the author and the intended audience and the purpose of communication should also be considered. Skopos theory is closely related to text-types and also emphasizes the importance of translation purposes. With these ideas as the basis, this article gives example how to apply text linguistics and skopos theory in classroom context to teach functional text translation.

The translation teaching materials are selected based on the text type and difficulty levels, students are trained to do text-analysis and be made aware of the purpose of the source text is not always the same with the purpose of the target text. Prior to giving a translation practice, therefore, the teacher writes the clearest translation brief possible Keywords: text linguistics, skopos theory, classroom teaching, translation teaching *** Translation has been done since long time ago. The activities have created a new profession, i.e. According to Hariyanto (2006), there are two markets for translation business, i.e. Publishers (national level) and translation agents (international level). Publishers publish translated books for several reasons. At least there are three motivations: academic, empowerment and business motivations.

With academic motivation, the publishers translate books to meet academic demand. For example, Resist Book translates and publishes a book on Chomsky to meet the need for literature on Chomsky in Bahasa Indonesia. They also translate and publish books to empower the readers, for example, in the fields of democratization, human rights, entrepreneurship and other fields. Finally, as the most dominating motivation, publishers translate and publish books for economic reasons.

Publication of translated books is more profitable rather than publishing local works. As a comparison, local writer’s royalty is 10% to 20%; and royalty for translated book is only 6% to 7%. Hence, publishers pay less when they publish translated books than when they publish books written by local writers. This is not to mention “copy left” publishers who publish book translated book without first buying the copyright.

In terms of quality, usually local writer’s quality is low; while great writers are, unfortunately, co-opted by big publishers. In terms of marketing, some translated books are already backed up with international success. This is illustrated by the high demand of the translation version of Harry Potter, the best seller novel ever. The translation business in the international market is boosted by the globalization needs. With globalization, many manufacturers want to sell their products in other countries. They need to talk to the people of other countries in their local languages. The text types vary now.

They do not only cover novels and textbooks but also websites and software interfaces. The Practice in Translation Teaching The great challenges of translation business illustrated above, however, are not paralleled with the fact found in educational institutions producing potential translators.

Chriss, as cited by Nababan (2007:2), states that up to these days the basic approach in translation teaching seems to remain unchanged from the time of the School of Scribes in Ancient Egypt. The teacher gives out a source text to the students and then without any briefing and notes asks them to translate the text in the class or at home. Upon completing, the target text is then discussed in great depth and detail by the whole class to find out what is lack in the translation.

In other words, the translation class is searching for “good” translation. A question to ask is then “good for whom?” or “on what criteria or bases”?

As a consequence, such practice can hardly produce potential translator who can take the challenge of the translation business in which a target text should firstly meet the purpose of translating the source text. This paper, therefore, aims to propose a translation teaching technique which hopefully can train the students to produce target texts demanded in the translation business. The technique is proposed by considering two influential concepts in translation theory, i.e., Text Linguisticsand Skopos Theory. Thus, in its discussion this paper explicates some concepts of Text Linguistics, Skopos Theory andits Translation-oriented text analysis and then describes the translation teaching technique proposed.

DISCUSSION Text Linguistics It is mentioned in the background of this paper that texts to be translated in translation business nowadays are various. For Indonesian publishers, translators translate textbooks, popular books, novels, children books, books on Information Technology (IT) and many others; as for many international and a few national translation agents, Indonesian translators work on texts like technical manuals, websites, software interfaces, advertisements, legal documents, annual reports, and many others. In relation to text-type, Snell-Hornby (1988) classifies translation into three general categories: literary translation, general translation and special language translation. Literary translation is the translation of literary works and Bible, and general translation is translation of newspaper, information text and advertising. Finally, special language translation covers the translation of legal, economic, medicine and science/technology texts. For all of these translation types, text linguistics is necessary. This can be seen in the following chart.

Chart 1: Text Types and Relevant Criteria for Translation What is text linguistics anyway? In general, it can be said that text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems.

Text linguistics takes into account the form of a text and its setting, i.e. The way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Thus, author of a text and its addressee are studied in their respective social and/or institutional roles in the specific communicative context.[1] [It is worth noted that Halliday (1978 and 1994) and his followers also talk about the similar concept of analysis under the discussion of genre.] In relation to translation, it can be said that translation is not only the business of analyzing the source text sentence by sentence. Instead, the author and the intended audience and the purpose of communication should also be considered. In relation to this, Reiss (1977/1989) has been very influential in focusing attention on the function of text – both in the context of the original and in the context of the situation that demands a translation.

As a matter of fact, her approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. She classifies texts based on discourse function into: (a) informative, (b) expressive, and (c) operative. A text is classified as an informative text if the content is the main focus.

This kind of texts plainly communicates facts, information, knowledge, opinions, etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is the main aspect involved.

Texts are called expressive if the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics aspects. Both the author and the message are what are foregrounded. The examples are imaginative creative literature texts. Next, an operative text is a text whose focus is the appellative aspect. Here the text appeals to the readers to act in a certain way by persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling them. Usually the form of language is dialogic.

Correspondingly Reiss (1977/1989) advocates specific translation methods for each of these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, because the aim is to transmit the referential content of the text. The target text of an expressive text should use the identifying method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The translation of an operative text has to employ the adaptive method, where the translator tries to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. See chart 2 for a better understanding of specific translation methods for each of these text types [adapted by Munday (2001: 74) based on Reiss (1977/1989)]. Chart 2: Functional Characteristics of Text Types and Links to Ttranslation Methods Reiss (1977/1989) also talks of evaluatory criteria, which vary according to text types.

Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. She thinks that one could measure the adequacy of a target text (TT) by intra-linguistic criteria—like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features—and extra-linguistic criteria—like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver, sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion etc. Types of Text.

Reiss (1977/1989) also proposes a text typology. Chart 3 illustrates the typology. The above typology is a useful typology of texts but it is clear that texts are often not easily categorized. One single text can have several characteristics. A biography could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. The important thing here is that her approach is built on earlier ideas of rhetoric and language analysis.

SkoposTheory and Translation-Oriented Text Analysis Skopos Theory It is clear from the above discussion on text linguistics that the approach to translation can be closely related to the type of text to translate. Translation theory that has a big concern on text-type is skopos theory or Skopos theorie introduced by Vermeer (1989/2000), the theory that applies the notion of Skopos (a Greek word for purpose) to translation. The translation process of a text is guided by its function i.e. The use of a receiver makes of a text or the meaning that the text has for the receiver. In other words, the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose/ skopos of the overall translational action. Briefly, Reiss and Vermeer (in Nord, 1997: 29) mention the following Skopos rule: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose.

The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. Skopos theory is not only closely related to text-types, but also to the importance of translation purposes which is always oriented to the target readers, especially their response. The difference in focus here is that the ST is the point of departure and the skopos refers to knowing why an ST is to be translated and what the function of the TT will be. Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of the translation, which determines the methods and strategies of translating, which are employed to produce functionally adequate result (Munday, 2001: 79). Skopos theory which emerged in Germany (Hatim, 2001: 73) is within functionalism.

Skopos idea relies on key concepts in pragmatics that is intention and action. There are two important skopos rules: Skopos rule 1: Intention is determined by its purpose. Skopos rule 2: purpose varies according to the text receiver. Translator decision is governed by textual and contextual factors. One of the contextual factors is audience design which accounts for the way a target text is intended to be received. This will affect the translation strategies selected by the translator.

Target text must be produced with the given purpose in mind and that translation will function well when shaped by a particular purpose. Three major kinds of purpose are already recognized: communicative, strategic, and general purposes (Hatim, 2001: 74) Such purposes cannot be equally important. The success or failure of a translation is ultimately decided whether it can be interpreted successfully by the targeted recipient in a manner that is consistent whit what is expected of it (Hatim, 2001: 75) In skopos theory, the success or failure of translation is often mentioned as success or protest. Success means definitely success in transferring the text function and protest means failure. A successful translation elicits no protest from the target recipient. No protest means the message received in the manner intended and/or expected.

Thus, intention is related with function. Intention is judged by the writer of source text and the function is judged by the receiver (Hatim, 2001: 75). Success of a translation is measured in terms of harmony of content and intention. Content means content of message. Intention means intention of producer or translator (Hatim, 2001: 75). There are two kinds of textual coherence: (a) intra-textual coherence and (b) intertextual coherence.

Here intra-textual coherence is more important. (Hatim, 2001: 76). As a matter of fact, text only contains information offer. Thus, a text may mean many different things to many receivers (Hatim, 2001: 76-77). Therefore, the target readers must be taken into account. Who, then, determines the skopos or purpose of translation?

The skopos is determined by the initiator or commissioner of the translation, the translation brief and the type of translation. In a translation project, there are at least three roles: initiator, commissioner, and translator. The following is an example of a case in translation field. One of the lectures in Malang State University has read a book on linguistics.

He thought that the book must be translated into Bahasa Indonesia so that Indonesians can study linguistics from the remarkable book. He, then, sent a letter to a publisher to propose translating the book. The publisher agreed, and so the lecturer started translating.

Question: Who is the initiator? – The lecturer Who is the commissioner? – The Publisher Who determines the translation purpose? – The lecturer The commissioner gives a translation job to a translator. The “order” is called Translation Brief ( Ind.

Surat Perintah Kerja). The Translation brief shall contain the function of target text, target audience, where and when target text is to be read, what is the medium (spoken, written) and motive, i.e., why translation is needed. However, publishers rarely issue such a complete translation brief. There are several principles claimed to be skopos rules by Reiss and Vermeer (1984, in Nord, 1997).

The rules are as follows: 1. A translatum or target text (TT) is determined by its skopos. A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and target language (TL) 3.

A TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way. A TT must be internally coherent. A TT must be coherent with source text (ST). The five rules above stand in hierarchical order, with the skopos rule predominating. Translation-oriented text analysis Related closely to skopos approach is text analysis prior to translating. Nord (1997: 59), one of the proponents of Skopos Theory, states that the elements of text analysis area; (a) the importance of the translation commission (translation brief), (b) the role of ST analysis, and (c) the functional hierarchy of translation problems. These points are briefly reviewed as follows.

The commission should give the following information: (a) the intended text function, (b) the addresses (sender and recipient), (c) the time and place of text reception, (d) the medium (speech and writing), and (e) the motive (why the ST was written and why it is being translated). This is also discussed above in which commission is termed by translation brief. The ST analysis is also important. In analyzing the ST, according to Nord (1991), the most important thing is the pragmatic analysis of the communicative situation involved and the model to be used for ST and the translation brief.

Which factors are to be analyzed? They can be some of the following, i.e. Subject matter; content including connotation and cohesion, presuppositions which mean the real-world factors of the communicative situation presumed to be known to the participants; composition including microstructure and macrostructure; non-verbal elements, for example illustrations and italic; lexis including dialect, registers and specific terminology; and sentence structure and suprasegmental features including stress, rhythm and stylistic punctuation. Moreover, functions are important in translation. The things that should be noticed in relation to text functions among others are the intended function, the functional elements, and the translation types determining translation style, the problems of the text can then be tackled at lower linguistic levels as in the second point above. Below is an advertisement a commissioner wants a translator to translate and under the text is the text analysis that may be done by the translator. PR Advertorial – Copy Sheet Headline Studies Wulan reveals her ultimate beauty secretSub-head As the new ambassador of Bella Skin Care, Wulan shares how Bella Skin Care helped her maintain flawless skin.

Body Copy Q: What is the secret behind your skin’s radiance? WULAN: I have always believed in the importance of going for regular, high-quality skincare treatments to achieve great skin. Aside from using Bella Skin Care products daily, I go for weekly treatments to soothe my skin after hours of intense makeup sessions. Because of this, I am able to keep my skin in tip-top condition – perfectly supple and visibly revitalized. Q: How do you keep your skin so luminous despite your hectic film schedule?

WULAN: I really love Bella Skin Care’s BioLymph High Symmetry System. It works wonders by detoxifying my skin and remodeling my facial contours, especially the problem areas around my eyes such as puffy eyes and eye bags – which results after long hours of filming.

Q: Among all the treatments, what is your favourite? WULAN: One of my favourites is Bella Skin Care’s exclusive Depilux™ Hair Free System.

This treatment painlessly impedes hair growth, leading to permanently silky, hair-free skin on any part of the body with zero down time. I’ll never have to worry about wearing revealing clothes during filming. With Bella Skin Care, I know I’m always at my best! Promo Portion Indulge in these fabulous beauty offers: Wulan’s Skin Perfecting Package for perfectly balanced skin Enjoy 30 Therapies at Rp3,000,000.00* Wulan’s Ultra Whitening Package for fairer, clearer skin Get 30 Therapies at Rp4,800,000.00* Wulan’s Nutritive Package for hydrated glowing skin Get 30 Therapies at Rp4,000,000.00* *Terms and conditions apply. The text, under Snell-Hornby categorization, is a general text. The author is the Bella Skin Care firm.

The audience is Indonesian young women, middle-up economic class, probably educated women. The purpose of the translation is to sell the product to Indonesian women. Based on Reiss’ categorization it is an operative text.

As an operative text, the appropriate method of translation is adaptive method in which all means are taken to achieve equivalent effect, i.e. Making Indonesian women buy the products. The target text therefore should focus on this appellative focus to elicit the desired response. The language dimension is dialogic, as evident in the source target also. The translation of the advertisement above might be like the following. PR Advertorial – Copy Sheet Headline Studies Wulan mengungkapkan rahasianya untuk cantik sempurna Sub-head Sebagai duta Bella Skin Care yang baru, Wulan mengungkapkan bagaimana Bella Skin membantu agar kulitnya tetap cantik sempurna.

Body Copy Tanya: Apa rahasia dari kulit Anda yang indah berseri? Wulan: Saya selalu yakin akan pentingnya perawatan kulit yang rutin dan bermutu tinggi untuk mendapatkan kulit yang cemerlang. Selain menggunakan produk Bella Skin Care setiap hari, saya juga datang untuk mendapatkan perawatan seminggu sekali untuk menenangkan kulit saya setelah berjam-jam memakai riasan yang berat. Hasilnya, saya bisa menjaga kulit agar selalu dalam kondisi prima – lentur sempurna dan terlihat muda lagi.

Tanya: Bagaimana cara Anda merawat kulit sehingga tetap begitu bercahaya meskipun jadwal Anda main film sangat ketat? Wulan: Saya sangat suka dengan Sistem BioLymph High Symmetry dari Bella Skin Care. Sistem ini manfaatnya sangat menakjubkan yaitu dengan mengeluarkan racun dari kulit dan membentuk kembali kontur wajah saya, terutama sekali di daerah yang bermasalah di sekitar mata seperti mata bengkak dan berkantung yang terjadi akibat bekerja berjam-jam main film. Tanya: Di antara semua perawatan yang ada, yang mana yang paling Anda sukai? Wulan: Salah satu perawatan dari Bella Skin Care yang paling saya sukai adalah Sistem Pembersihan Bulu Rambut Depilux™. Perawatan ini mencegah tumbuhnya bulu rambut tanpa rasa sakit, hasilnya kulit yang tetap sehalus sutra yang bebas dari bulu rambut dan ini bisa langsung terlihat hasilnya di bagian kulit mana pun pada tubuh.

Saya tidak akan khawatir lagi bila harus mengenakan baju yang agak terbuka bisa sedang main film. Dengan Bella Skin Care, Saya yakin saya selalu dalam kondisi puncak! By: Iwik Pratiwi The loads of value in “Anna and the King” (1999), a film based on a diary written by Margaret Landon in 1944 provides an accurate and extensive basis for exploration of interlanguage communication used in real life. It tells about the English woman who became a teacher in Siam in King Mongkut’s era and explores a continuous negotiation between cultural practices and other socio-political determinants which promote the Royal institution in the Thai everyday life.

This paper is to reveal an interdiscourse communication represented in a scene taken from the film emphasizing on the situation represented in a dialogue in which members of different groups are in social interaction with each other and the interpretive processes they must bring to bear to understand each other in a highly altered hybrid and culturally mixed situation. The discussion is based on a discourse approach proposed by Ron Scollon, Suzanne Wong Scollon and Rodney H. Jones in their book: “Intercultural Communication” (2012). The speech situation, speech events, and speech acts are outlined before discussing the grammar of context. Then the background discourse is elaborated before analysing the occuring problems during the intercultural communication between Anna, an English woman and King Mongkut, a Siamese ruler.

Key words: speech act, speech situation, intercultural communication The dialogue being examined is taken from one of the film’s scene, when Anna takes her first step in the King’s palace. The dialogue represents a single speech situation which constitutes a meeting with the Siam Royal family, involving a number of speech events and speech acts as outlined below: Speech Events Speech Acts Participants Utterances Introducing one self (1) Mentioning name and occupation Anna “Your Majesty!

Am Anna Leonowens, I’m a school” (2) Ordering to stop K.Mongkut “Stop!Aah! (3) Asking someone to give explanation K.Mongkut “Who?

Who?” (4) Giving Explanation P. Minister “Your Majesty, Me Anna Leonowens and son Louis.” (5) Giving Explanation Anna “Your Majesty we have been kept waiting for nearly 3 weeks. And although I appreciate that you have issues of great importance, I would imagine that your son’s education would be far more” (6) Refusing explanation K. Mongkut “Silence!” (7) Asking if Anna is a teacher K.

Mongkut “You. Are teacher?” (8) Confirming Anna “Yes, Your Majesty, I am.” (9) Giving Opinion K. Mongkut “You do not look sufficient of age for scientific teaching.” (10) Asking about Anna’s age.

Mongkut How many years have you?” (11) Giving opinion Anna “Enough to know that age and wisdom do not necessarily go hand in hand, Your Majesty.I doubt you would say the same for being bold and English.” (12) Disagreeing K.Mongkut “They are rather inseparable, I’m afraid.” (13) Ordering P.Minister “His Majesty has not dismissed you. Follow him!” (14) Ordering Anna “Come along, Louis. Quickly.” (15) Giving Compliment K. Mongkut “You articulate logical answer under pressure, Mem Leonowens.” (16) Thanking Anna “That is very kind of you, Your Majesty.” (17) Warning K. Mongkut “But irritating superior attitude, King find most unbeautiful.

However, it will serve you well, given decision I now make.” (18) Giving Opinion Anna “First impressions can often be very misleading.” (19) Ordering K. Mongkut “Along with my eldest sonyou shallnow teach all my children. Come.” Introducing the Royal Family (20) Introducing K.Mongkut The royal family. 23 wives42 concubines58 offspring, and 10 more on the way.Each one unique, each one my hope for the future.

I understand your surprise. Not as many as emperor of China, but he did not spend half of life in monastery. King making up for lost time.” (21) Asking the meaning of concubine Louis “Mother, what’s a concubine?” (22) Asking Louis to be quiet Anna “Ssshh.” (23) Introducing K.

Mongkut “Presenting original pupil and heir apparent Prince Chulalongkorn. This, my son, is your new teacher. (24) Greeting Anna “It is a great honor, Your Highness.” (25) Giving opinion Louis “He doesn’t look too happy about it.” (26) Introducing K. Mongkut This is a necessary and practical gift Igive to you, and you must never forget to honor your renowned teacher,Mem Anna Leonowens. Must not forget head wife, the Lady Thiang. (27) Ordering K.

Mongkut It is my pleasure that you help make her fine scholar also.” (28) Greeting Anna “Lady Thiang.” (29) Greeting Lady Thiang “Welcome, Mem teacher.” (30) Introducing K. Mongkut “Prince Thongkon Yai,.Prince Suk Sawat,.Princess Kannika Kaeo And Princess Fa-ying.” (31) Disagreeing Fa Ying “I’m not princess, I’m monkey!” (32) Apologizing K. Mongkut “Ha ha! My deepest apologies. I study her in English myself.” (33) Thanking Anna “Well, Your Majesty,I am most flattered by your welcome,and I find the opportunity to be in school an exciting one. Such devotion to progress is to be commended.” (34) Giving opinion K. Mongkut “Reform is vital for my country’s survival.

As tiny feet change,so, too, will Siam.” (35) Giving Opinion Anna “But being in a country with so many unique customs, If I am to raise my sonto be like his father, which I very much hope he will be, then I must feel free to follow our own traditions. (36) Symphatizing K. Mongkut As a father, I understand. (37) Requesting a house Anna Good.

Then His Majesty will appreciate why having a home outside the palace walls is of such great importance to us. A home whichhad been promised, but so far has not been provided.” (38) Refusing Anna’s request K. Mongkut “It is my pleasure that you live in the palace.” (39) Emphasizing the request Anna “But it is not mine, Your Majesty.” (40) Ordering K. Mongkut “You do not set conditions of your employment, and you shall obey!” (41)Reminding the King about her position Anna “May I respectfully remind His Majesty that I am not his servant, but his guest!” (42)Disagreeing K. Mongkut “A guest who’s paid. (43)Ordering K.

Mongkut “Education begins tomorrow.” The speech events above are high context, in which relationship among participants constitutes shared experiences and expectations, acts to cement group member together and so much is communicated nonverbally through contextual cues. DISCUSSION Grammar of Context In grammar of contexts, the following points are discussed: scene, key, participants, message form, sequence, manifestation. Scene The geographical setting of this film takes place in Siam, described as Burma in the west to Cambodia in east, with forty nine bountiful provinces, and population of six millions. Whereas the events or stories takes place in the Grand Royal Palace, the Great Temple, and in a Monastery in Non Khai. Finding out the historical setting of the story means referring to when the story of the novel started that was in English Era, 26th February 1862, the time Anna gets an invitation from The King of Siam to be an English teacher for his royal children.

The dialogue itself takes place in the throne hall of Siam Palace, then moved to the royal garden where the royal family are gathering. The throne room is set up for The King as a receiving room, where he presides in majesty over official ceremonies, holds council, grants audiences, receives homage, awards high honor and offices, and other official functions. While the royal garden, featuring a great gazebo surrounded by beautiful flowers, is set up exclusively for the royal family. The preestablished norms for the places and the use of space, the time and the duration of events depends much of the royal protocol, etiquettes and the King himself as the highest authority. In one way or another, breaching the protocol at the King’s presence is almost impossible. The genre of this dialogue is, then, a royal meeting, and the topic can be defined as an introduction to the royal family, and as it is stated on the topic, the purpose of the meeting is to get to know to the King of Siam and the royal family. Key A royal meeting, which involves the King and the family is generally conducted according to rules and protocols.

When meeting a royal, there are rules about who can speak first, where to look, what to call them, what and when to speak, how you should stand and when you should sit. In this case, we can always expect a key of formality and seriousness. Participants 1) King Mongkut King Maha Mongkut, also known as Rama IV, ruled Siam (now Thailand) from 1851 to 1868, during which time he successfully negotiated with Western powers and modernized his nation.

Mongkut ascended the throne upon the death of his half-brother, Jetta (Rama III), after spending 27 years as a Buddhist monk. Educated and multi-lingual, Mongkut negotiated with the United States and European powers to open Siam to international trade. Free Download Program The Pity Of It All Ebook Sites.

He also brought in missionaries to teach his concubines and children about modern science and culture. Anna Leonowens was among of them. In the conversation being examined, the King takes a full control of the talk. As a king who is regarded as a “near to God”, he decides who, when, how and what to do at his favor. 2) Anna Leonowens Born in India, Anna was left by her parents in England at a girls’ school run by a relative.

Her father, an army sergeant, was killed in India, and Anna’s mother didn’t return for her until Anna was fifteen years old. When Anna’s stepfather tried to marry her to a much older man, she moved into the home of a clergyman and traveled with him.

Some sources say the clergyman was married, others that he was single. Anna then married an army clerk, Thomas Leon Owens or Leonowens, and moved with him to Singapore. He died, leaving her in poverty to raise their daughter and son. She started a school in Singapore for the children of the British officers, but it failed. In 1862, she took a position in Bangkok, then Siam and now Thailand, as a tutor to the children of the King. King Rama IV or King Mongkut followed tradition in having many wives and many children.

While Anna Leonowens was quick to take credit for her influence in the modernization of Siam/Thailand, clearly the King’s decision to have a governess or tutor of British background was already part of a beginning of such modernization. In the dialogue being examined, Anna takes her role as a new foreign teacher who is not only meeting and greeting the royal family, she is also baldly asking the King to fulfill her right as stated in the agreement, which is hardly impossible to happen among Siamese people. 3) Chao Phya Kralahome (The Prime Minister) The Prime Minister is the one who introduces Anna to the Royal protocol and ettiquetes. He does not takes much part in the dialogue except answering the King when he demands explanation of who Anna is and ordering Anna to follow the King before he dissmisses her. 4) Louis Leonowens Anna’s 6 years old son.

As a little boy in Bangkok, Louis enjoys himself enormously. He asks a lot about Siamese culture which is, of course, far diffrerent from his own. Sometimes he goes to Anna’s class and stands on a chair beside his mother, mimicking her voice and gestures as she teaches the little princes and princesses. He makes friend with Prince Chulalongkorn, King Mongkut’s first son. His curiosity drives him to take part in the dialogue. 5) Lady Thiang The King’s headwife, out of 23 wives and 42 concubines that the King wants Anna to teach.

She takes a little part in the dialogue as the King introduces her to Anna. 6) Fa Ying One of the King’s favorite Princess, a 4 years old girl who defines herself as a monkey. She also takes a little part in the dialogue. Message Form The dialogue being examined is a scene taken from a biographical film, “Anna and the King” (1999). As it can be seen, the message form is presented in audio visual media. Anna and the King is a 1999 biographical drama film loosely based on the 1944 novel Anna and the King of Siam (and its 1946 film adaptation), which give a fictionalised account of the diaries of Anna Leonowens. The story concerns Anna, an English schoolteacher in Siam, now Thailand, in the late 19th century, who becomes the teacher of King Mongkut’s many children and wives.

Directed by Andy Tennant and stars Jodie Foster and Chow Yun-fat, it was an Academy Award nominee in 1999 for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. Sequence As has been stated above, the speech situation of the dialogue represents a formal agenda, i.e. A royal meeting, in which the King takes a full control and exposes a major voice during the talk. Then it is not surprising that marked co-occurence sometimes happens depending on how the King as the highest authority favors the proceeding of the meeting. A marked co-occurence happens when Anna insists in introducing herself to the King exactly at the end of receiving time, when the King is ready to leave the throne room.

It seems to be a shared knowledge among the Siamese that when the King puts off his royal robe, any activities in the throne room must be dissmissed. Anna, who comes from a different discourse system, ignores this order and baldly introduces herself to the King. The King is confused and demands an explanation for the breached agenda. Although the King finally knows that Anna is the teacher he has invited, the King keeps leaving the throne room, receives Anna’s introduction and directs her to meet the royal family in the royal garden.

This is a little unexpected, considering that Anna is a foreign guest who is supposed to have the most formal receiving. Manifestation Since the communication is controlled by the King who has an ultimate power and authority, some components remain tacit or unexpressed, as the following example: Anna: “Enough to know that age and wisdom do not necessarily go hand in hand, Your Majesty.I doubt you would say the same for being bold and English.” K.Mongkut: “They are rather inseparable, I’m afraid.” (leaving the room) P.Minister: “His Majesty has not dismissed you. Follow him!” Anna thinks that the meeting should end when the King is leaving the throne room.

However, the Prime Minister orders her to follow the King since he has not dismissed her. Anna will have known this if the King orders her to follow him instead of being tacit.

The other example is when Anna demands the King to provide a house out of the palace as stated in the agreement. The King does not grant her without an explicit explanation.

Then His Majesty will appreciate why having a home outside the palace walls is of such great importance to us. A home whichhad been promised,but so far has not been provided.” K. Mongkut:”It is my pleasure that you live in the palace.” Anna:”But it is not mine, Your Majesty.” • Mongkut:”You do not set conditions of your employment, and you shall obey!” Interpersonal Politeness and Power As soon as the King is introduced to Anna, both agree on how they should establish the relationship. To some extent, both accepts the diference in status and ratifies that by using a relatively high concentration of independence politeness strategies out of respect of each other (+D). The asymmetrical relationship between Anna and the other participant to the King indicates that hierarchical face system ( +P, +/-D) is being employed, in which Anna and the other participants speaks “up” to the King, and the King speaks “down” to all participants. It can be seen that Anna as the “lower” uses independence face strategies, which include: • Makes minimal assumption about the hearer’s wants: “. And although I appreciate that you have issues of great importance, I would imagine that your son’s education would be far more ” • Minimize Threat “But being in a country with so many unique customs, If I am to raise my son to be like his father, which I very much hope he will be, then I must feel free to follow our own traditions.” • Uses title/ honorific: “Yes, Your Majesty, I am.” • Be pessimistic “Enough to know that age and wisdom do not necessarily go hand in hand, Your Majesty.

I doubt you would say the same for being bold and English.” • Dissasociate Speaker / Hearer from the discourse. “May I respectfully remind His Majesty that I am not his servant, but his guest!” Introducing herself has been the most important thing for Anna to approach the King.

Understandably Anna uses an extra deferential tone and the highest level of independence strategies. While the King, as the “higher” uses involvement strategies, which include: • Exaggerate (interest, approval, symphaty) “You articulate logical answer under pressure, Mem Leonowens.” • Claim common point of view, opinions, attitudes, knowledge, emphaty. “As a father, I understand.” Cohesive Device Participants use cohesive devices on their discourse which include: Reference See the following table. K.Mongkut: “They are rather inseparable, I’m afraid.” They refers to wisdom and age P.Minister: “His Majesty has not dismissed you. Follow him!” His Majesty and him refer to the King K.

Mongkut “But irritating superior attitude, King find most unbeautiful. However, it will serve you well, given decision I now make.” It refers to Anna’s irritating attitude Louis “He doesn’t look too happy about it.” He refers to Prince Chulalongkorn.It refers to having a foreign (colonial) teacher K. Mongkut This is a necessary and practical gift I give to you, and you must never forget to honor your renowned teacher,Mem Anna Leonowens. Uh This refer to education K.

Mongkut “Ha ha! My deepest apologies. I study her in English myself.” Her refers to Fa Ying, the King’s daugther K. Mongkut “It is my pleasure that you live in the palace.” The place refers to the place where Anna lives at present Anna “But it is not mine, Your Majesty.” It refers to the place where Anna lives at present Verb Forms Although the communication is spoken in English, we can only see a little difference of verb forms in producing cohesion. One of them is the use of perfect continuous tense in passive voice below: Anna: “Your Majesty we have been kept waiting for nearly 3 weeks.” Anna implies that waiting is not her intention and the use of perfect continuous tense intensifies the length of time she has wasted.

She is actually complaining and telling that she cannot wait any longer to start working. Other use of verbs which are mostly simple present and future tense, shows the degree of politeness and weight of imposition as seen in the following examples: Anna: “ I doubt you would say the same for being bold and English.” The King: “Education begins tomorrow.” Conjunction There are at least three out of four major kinds of conjunction of clauses in English used in the discourse.

‘And’ as additive marker (“Presenting original pupil and heir apparent Prince Chulalongkorn), ‘but’ as adversative marker (“But irritating superior attitude, King find most unbeautiful. However, it will serve you well, given decision I now make.”) and ‘then’ as temporal marker ( Then His Majesty will appreciate why having a home outside the palace walls is of such great importance to us). Cognitive Schemata and Scripts A regular pattern of activities can always be expected in many royal meeting throughout the world of monarchy.

A formal set agenda is conducted under a fixed protocol employing particular ettiquetes. To follow the protocol properly, Anna is drilled and instructed by the Prime Minister, and it is relatively easier for her to follow the protocol since she also comes from a monarch country.

It is not difficult for her to master sets of efficient adjacency sequences on how to greet royal family as soon as she is being introduced.(“It is a great honor, Your Highness.” ), or on responding a compliment (“That is very kind of you, Your Majesty”). The ongoing flow of the dialogue indicates that the King uses a number of stress syllables as the indication of imperative or instruction. It is not difficult for Anna to understand these since the King is speaking in English. On the termination of his turn, the King also uses this kind of stress indicating that he recognizes the unmarked assumption which he thinks is not entirely true. See the following table.

Anna “May I respectfully remind His Majesty that I am not his servant, but his guest!” K. Mongkut “A guest who’s paid. “Education begins tomorrow.” Background Discourse System Anna Leonowens, as most other discourse participant, attends in a number of discourse systems. As a teacher, she belongs to her professional world, equips herself with books and encyclopedia to keep up with her professionalism. At her thirties, she belongs to the generation who was born and raised by Britsh couple in late 18’s. Anna also belongs to a gender discourse system which promotes certain models of speech and behavior.

In the conversation, she is an English teacher working for the King of Siam, then she is a member of Utilitarian discourse system which predominates in such international business and professional exchanges. In this type of discourse system goodness is related to the physical and mental state of the individual, the more individuals that are happy, the more goodness exists. One may expect that she takes part in the conversation as a professional, or is engaged in a voluntary discourse system since there is an obvious purpose i.e.

Providing education to the royal family. In the dialogue, Anna and her son is in the process of learning how to participate in the discourse systems of the royal family through a mix of education and socialization. She is observing the general practices of the royal family and at the same time being trained by the Prime Minister and the King himself to understand and follow the rules of the royal protocols.

The King of Siam, on the other hand, belongs to a more restricted and ambiguous discourse system. As the ultimate ruler in Siam he belongs to a “royal” corporate and at the same time professional discourse system. He holds a traditonal concept of vertical and generational relationship. His discourse is thought of being used for the purpose of ratifying or affirming relationship which have already been given. Although he belongs to Confucian who respects realization of human potential and moral cultivation, he also shares a Ultilitarianism belief in the power of society to shape human consciousness and behavior, hence emphasizes the importance of education.

He speaks English, teaches his daughter English by himself and invites Anna, an international teacher, to educate the royal family. Background discourse system of the other participants are not discussed in detail since problems are mainly caused by the intercultural communication between Anna and the King. Problems and Further Discussion There are some problems that need further discussion due to the unique characteristics.

See the discussion below. Non Sequential Processing The communication between Anna and the King is not innitiated smoothly due to Anna’s disfluency of the discourse. When the King of Siam is putting off his robe at the throne room, everyone in the room expects that the receiving ends and no one can prevent the King from leaving.

Anna who has been waiting for almost three weeks to take her turn, cannot wait any longer and breaches the protocol by taking her turn to speak to the King of her existence. In a normal sequence, someone who introduces herself is usually responded by a greeting (“How do you do?”, or “Nice to meet you.”) In the dialogue, the King who is annoyed, does not intend to communicate with Anna, instead, he utters a single word with stressed syllable indicating an imperative before Anna finishes her sentence. Apparently, such too early interturn also indicates communication refusal. Anna: “Your MajestyI am Anna Leonowens, I’m a school. “ K.Mongkut: “Stop!Aah!

Minister:”Your Majesty, Mem Anna Leonowens and son Louis.” Anna:”Your Majesty we have been kept waiting for nearly 3 weeks.And although I appreciate that you have issues of great importance, I would imagine that your son’s education would be far more” K. Mongkut ■.”Silence!” K. Are teacher?” A King is assumed to be “a near to God” creature who holds the ultimate authority in Asian countries. At his presence, no one can takes his/ her turn to speak without being asked. Anna’s disfluency of the discourse is a negative attitude which is resulted from a different expectation and should be discontinued. Instead of giving response to Anna, the King demands an explanation from the Prime Minister who is reponsible for the royal protocol. However, Anna insists in taking the next turn, resulting the King to give an even higher pitch of imperative ordering her to be silent.

Anna may not have noticed her negative attitude or she may ignore it. Surprisingly, instead of dismissing Anna, the King takes over the turn in much lower interrogative tone to start the interaction.

Socialization It is interesting to note that although Anna is engaged in a voluntary discourse system, the dialogue indicates that there is an absence of formal systems to learn the preferred forms of discourse. She becomes a participant through socialization or enculturation, instructed from time to time by the Prime Minister and the King himself.

Her intolerance of the delays in meeting the King is the result of disfluency of the discourse. This negative attitude may have been avoided if she accomplishes a formal system of socialization. Topic and Face System Within an asymmetrical or hierarchical face system it is quite unusual for a person in the lower position to introduce his or her own topic without first receiving the right to do so from the person in the higher position. The person in the lower position would most likely follow an inductive strategy, and avoid introducing a topic in the first case, or put off bringing up his or her topic until it followed naturally from the preceding discourse. A problem may arise due to different ideas about power. Anna, being a professional teacher who comes from an egalitarian system, and invited by the King to teach the royal family, is expecting herself to have equivalent or near equivalent rank to the King (-P). She introduces her topic deductively, exactly when no one receives the right to do so.

As expected, the King refuses the interpersonal relationship that Anna intends to build, and instead of giving response, he orders Anna to stop and demands an explanation from the Prime Minister. At the next instance, when the King and Anna have made an agreement on their personal relationship she introduces her topic inductively. Anna “But being in a country with so many unique customs, If I am to raise my son to be like his father, which I very much hope he will be, then I must feel free to follow our own traditions.

Mongkut “As a father, I understand.” Anna “Good. Then His Majesty will appreciate why having a home outside the palace walls is of such great importance to us.A home whichhad been promised,but so far has not been provided.” However, although both agree to use a mutual deference, there are difference ideas of what constitutes power. As an egalitarian, Anna realizes her unequal positions, but she also takes her equal stance as individual. She feels free to speak about her right to have a house out of the palace as stated in the business agreement with the King. King of Siam, on the other hand, belongs to Confucian system, in which moral entities is the priority, and at the same time is in the superior position, thinks that one should respect any authority of the superior position in the society. Anna is not regarded “favorably” when she is pursuing her own interest to have a house out of the palace.

The weight of imposition even increases when Anna is trying to negotiate her power to the King: Anna: “May I respectfully remind His Majesty that I am not his servant, but his guest!” As expected, the fixed interpersonal relationship between Anna and the King is not likely to change. Although Anna is doing a face threatening act, the King is saving his face by refusing the negotiated power and demands his authority. King Mongkut: “A guest who’s paid. Education begins tomorrow.” Conclusions The dialogue taken from ‘Anna and the King’ consisting only two speech events. It provides a fruitful examples of intercultural communications and problems that occur.

The main character, Anna, is exposed in a totally different discourse system. The discussion is mainly based on these difference: Western vs Eastern, Utilitarian vs Confusian, deductive culture vs inductive culture, ordinary etc. It can be concluded that the occuring miscommunication is mainly due to different discourse system which includes ideology forms of discourse, partial socialization and different perception of face system. Further discussion on other dialogues in the film would contribute to the comprehensive understanding of the discourse system, also, a study on language and gender would be an interesting exploration to investigate whether Anna exposes female discourse system and the King, male discourse system. References Brown, P., & Levinson, S.

Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Interaction Ritual; Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Meyerhoff, Miriam (2006). New York Scollon, Ron, Suzanne & H.

Jones, Rodney (2012). Intercultural Communication. A Discourse Approach. Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Oxford Yule, G.

Oxford: Oxford University Press. Achmad Suyono, Sugeng Hariyanto, Politeknik Negeri Malang Ada beberapa megatren yang mempengaruhi profesi penerjemahan. Beberapa dari megratren yang terpending adalah globalisasi ekonomi, perkembangan teknologi informasi dan digitalisasi.

Globalisasi ekonomi menyebabkan sebuah perusahaan berusaha untuk hadir dan berbisnis di seluruh dunia. Untuk itu, perusahaan merasa perlu menerbitkan situs web dalam bahasa dimana perusahaannya akan beroperasi, menerbitkan dokumen produk dalam bahasa pasar sasaran, dll. Ini berarti penerjemahan menjadi salah satu alternatif untuk menghilangkan jarak psikologi. Perkembangan teknologi informasi telah mempengaruhi jenis teks dan karenanya mempengaruhi bagaimana teks itu harus diterjemahkan. Teks sekarang ini tidak saja tetrtulis di artas kertas, tetapi tersimpan di server internet dan bisa memuat gambar dan suara.

Karakteristik jenis teks baru ini tentunya tidak bisa diterjemahkan dengan cara tradisional. Diperlukan perangkat lunak tertentu dan keterampilan tertentu di samping keterampilan linguistik yang digunakan di penerjemahan tradisional. Dengan adanya digitalisasi membuat dokumen referensi yang dulu tercetak diatas kertas sekarang dengan mudah dibuka dan dirujuk menggunakan komputer. Hal ini juga terkait dengan perangkat lunak atau kemajuan teknologi informasi. Dengan digitalisasi, seorang penerjemah dapat membuka banyak kamus dan ensikopledia dalam beberapa detik saja. Artikel ini juga membahas secara ringkas apa-apa yang perlu dipersiapkan oleh penerjemah dalam rangka menjawab tantangan tiga butir megatren ini.

Terakhir, pembahasan ini juga dapat ditarik lebar ke arah kurikulum pengajaran penerjemahan. Singkatnya, kurikulum harus juga memuat butir-butir keterampilan yang diperlukan untuk menjawab tantangan ini. Kata kunci: megatren, globalisasi, teknologi informasi, digitalisasi, perangkat lunak penerjemahan, CAT Tool, mesin penerjemah, website, keterampilan penerjemahan, keprigelan penerjemah, kurikulum penerjemahan Tiga Megatren yang Mempengaruhi Profesi Penerjemah Tiga megatren yang mempengaruhi terjemahan dan profesi penerjemahan adalah: globalisasi ekonomi, perkembangan teknologi informasi, dan digitalisasi. Globalisasi berasal dari kata “globe” yang merujuk pada bola dunia.

Globalisasi adalah suata proses meleburnya batas-batas negara sehingga individu, perusahaan, pemerintah beroperasi dengan pertimbangan kepentingan dirinya sendiri dan individu, perusahaan, pemerintah lain di seluruh permukaan “globe” (bola dunia). Pada dasarnya, globalisasi adalah integrasi intemasional (Chomsky). Integrasi ini bisa di bidang budaya, sains, dan lain-lain. Namun, yang menjadi panglimanya sejauh ini adalah globalisasi ekonomi. Inti dari globalisasi ekonomi ini adalah berdagang di seluruh permukaan “globe” (bumi).

Dalam rangka melakukan perdagangan inilah, perusahaan perlu membuat dokumen dalam bahasa pasar di bagian lain bumi ini. Dan ini adalah penerjemahan juga. Globalisasi sekarang ini sedang kencang-kencangnya karena mendapat sokongan yang luar biasa dari bidang teknologi informasi.

Teknologi informasi menurut Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is “the study, design, development implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware.” Teknologi informasi (TI) secara umum meliputi penggunaan perangkat keras dan lunak komputer untuk mengonversi, menyimpan, melindungi, memroses dan membuka ulang informasi. Dengan adanya teknologi ini, terbuka banyak kemungkinan terkait kerja terjemahan yang efisien.

Dengan komputer orang bisa menulis dengan cepat dan mencari data dengan cepat karena banyak dokumen yang didigitalisasi. Mendigitalkan informasi berarti mengubahnya ke dalam bentuk yang mudah dibaca oleh komputer (Collin Cobuild Dictionary). Bukan hanya dokumen yang akan diterjemahkan yang mengalami digitalisasi. Kamus pun juga mengalami digitisasi, sehingga ini mempengaruhi kerja penerjemah.

Beberapa perangkat lunak komputer juga dibuat untuk memudahkan kerja penerjemah. Proses memadukan teknologi digital ke dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, dalam hal ini kehidupan penerjemah disebut digitalisasi. Dengan digitalisasi ini, kamus yang tebal dapat di boat menjadi beberapa megabyte saja. Kamus pun dapat dibuka dengan sangat cepat.

Dari hal-hal baru yang dicapai oleh perkembangan TI, Internet adalah yang paling berdampak besar. Internet adalah hubungan jaringan komputer dengan standar yang sama sehingga pesan dapat dikirimkan dari satu komputer yang terdaftar di sebuah jaringan ke komputer lain dalam jaringan lain (Crystal,: 3). Dengan demikian, internet adalah media baru bagi pertukaran pesan.

Dan menururt Crystal (6-10), ragam bahasa yang dipakai di internet mempunyai cirri tersendiri dalam hal: (a) fitur grafis, (b) fitur grafologis, (c) fitur gramatikal. (d) fitur leksikal, dan fitur wacana.

Karena suara juga bisa ditampilkan di dalam Ides, maka Crystal juga menambahkan (e) fitur fonetik dan (f) fitur fonologis. Lebih jauh Crystal (10) mengidentifikasi beberapa situasi yang menggunakan internet: (a) email, (b) chatgroup, (c) virtual world (online game), (d) word wide web, (e) instant messaging, and (f) blogging. Dari enam penggunaan internet tersebut, world wide web mempu: pengaruh yang paling besar terhadap penerjemahan. Pengaruh ini dapat ditelisik dari dua hal.

Pertama, semakin banyak situs web yang diterjemahkan dan kedua, semakin bamak informasi yang ada di internet yang bisa membantu kerja penerjemah. Singkatnya, gabungan antara perkembangan teknologi komputer dan internet, mempengaruhi profesi penerjemahan dalam hal (a) format dokumen baru, (b) kebutuhan penerjemahan yang semakin banyak dan sumber daya penerjemahan semakin kaya. Menurut Gouadec (2007) Teknologi Infirmasi (TI) mempengaruhi profesi penerjemah. Pertama karena TI membuka pasar terjemahan yang benar-benar baru. Bidang terjemahan sebagai profesi yang semakin khusus, bukan lagi sekadar bisa dikerjakan oleh dwibahsawan, karena bidang ini memerlukan perangkat lunak khusus dengan tingkat harga yang lumayan dan kerumitan yang tinggi. Dia malah mengistilahkan “clean up the market’* untuk perubahan ini.

Ketiga, website menjadi sarana untuk mengelola penawaran dan kebutuhan jasa terjemahan. Dan akhirnya, TI melahirkan peranti penerjemahan berbantuan komputer (CAT Tool). Lebih lanjut Gouadec (2007) juga menengarai adanya lima hal yang membuat revolusi teknologi ini menjadi tidak bersahabat bagi penerjemah. Pertama, komputerisasi telah mengubah kerja terjemahan dari kerja amatir menjadi kerja rumahan dan kemudian menjadi bagian dari proses industri. Sebagai proses industri, berarti ada volume pekerjaan yang sangat besar, ada alat tertentu yang selaras dengan proses induistri keseluruhan, dan penerapan prosedur standar. Ini artinya penerjemah harus berinvestasi besar tidak hanya dalam hal uang tetapi juga dalam hal belajar teknik-teknik dan cara kerja baru.

Menurutnya, standar perlengkapan penerjemah terkait TI adalah program pengolah kata, desk publishing, manajemen memori terjemahan, menajemen glosari, dan internet tanpa batas. Hal kedua yang kurang menguntungkan penerjemah adalah ketatnya kompetisi harga karena dengan globalisasi dan internet, klien bisa memesan jasa terjemahan kepada siapa pun di sudut dunia asalkan harganya rendah dan kualitas tidak mengecewakan. TI membuat penerjemah sangat bergantung pada komputer, bahkan bisa-bisa menjadi ‘pesuruh’ komputer. Hal terakhir adalah terpisahnya penerjemah dari koleganya karena bekerja dari rumah.

Khusus untnk hal terakhir ini, Gouadec (2007) tidak sepenuhnya benar karena dengan bantuan internet sekarang ini komunikasi dengan sesama penerjemah dapat dilakukan dengan baik. Lebih jauh Gouadec (200”) juga menyatakan bahwa nantinya setelah penerjemah menguasa sarana baru ini. Penerjemah segera akan disibukan dengan belajar bagaimana menangani materi (jenis teks) sumber baru yang akan dibuat dengan sarana yang lebih baru dari yang telah dikuasai oleh penerjemah Kebutuhan Baru, Kompetensi Baru, Keterampilan Baru Adanya format dokumen baru menuntut penerjemah menerjemahkan dengan teknik yang baru pula karena tidak mungkin dokumen yang berupa file animasi diterjemahkan dengan program pengolah kata saja. Seperti yang telah disinggung di atas. Perkembangan TI melahirkan peranti penerjemah berbantuan komputer (yang dalam bahasa Inggris disebut “Computer Assisted Translation Tools atau disingkat CAT Tool). Lebih lanjut, dengan adanya digitalisasi, perangkat lunak CAT Tool ini dapat dengan mudah disebarkan dan dipasang di komputer para penerjemah.

Penguasaan keterampilan terkait CAT Tool ini dapat dikategorikan sebagai salah satu sub-kompetensi menerjemahkan (PACTE Group, 2005). PACTE Group adalah sebuah kelompok riset di University of Barcelona yang khusus mempelajari kompetensi terjemahan secara sistematis dan empiris. Grup ini mendefinisikan kompetensi terjemahan sebagai sistem yang mendasari pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang diperlukan untuk dapat menerjemahkan (PACTE Group, 2005). Lesznyak (2007: 168) mengatakan bahwa model kompetensi terjemahan yang diusulkan oleh kelompok riset ini adalah yang paling canggih untuk saat ini. Grup PACTE menyatakan bahwa kompetensi terjemahan memiliki empat karakteristik khas: (a) kompetensi terjemahan adalah pengetahuan khusus yang tidak dimiliki oleh semua dwibahasawan, (b) pada dasarnya kompetensi terjemahan bersifat prosedural (bukan deklaratif), (c) kompetensi terjemahan terdiri dari beberapa sub-kompetensi, dan (4) sub-kompetensi strategis sangat penting karena kompetensi terjemahan merupakan pengetahuan prosedural, bukan deklaratif.

Sub-kompetensi terjemahan dan kesalingterkaitan diilustrasikan pada Gambar 1 berikut ini. Model Kompetensi Terjemahan menurut Grup PACTE (2005) Subkompetensi pertama adalah subkompetensi bilingual (dwibahasa). Subkompetensi ini terdiri atas pengetahuan pragmatik, sosio-linguistik, tekstual dan leksikal-gramatikal bahasa sumber (Bsu) dan Bahasa Sasaran (Bsa). Menurut hemat saya, ini kurang lebih sama dengan kompetensi linguistik pada umumnya.

Sub-kompetensi kedua adalah subkompetensi ekstra-linguistik yang terdiri dari pengetahuan ensiklopedik, tematik dan bikultural (dwibudaya). Sub-kompetensi ketiga adalah pengetahuan tentang terjemahan. Pengetahuan ini adalah pengetahuan tentang prinsip-prinsip yang memandu penerjemahan (misalnya proses penerjemahan, metode terjemahan, prosedur terjemahan, dll.) dan pengetahuan tentang profesi penerjemah (msl.

Jenis-jenis terjemahan, cara memahami perintah terjemahan, karakteristik pembaca sasaran, harapan pembaca sasaran, dll.). Subkompetensi keempat—subkompetensi instrumental—adalah subkompetensi yang terdiri dari pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang terkait dengan penggunaan alat atau sumber-sumber yang dapat membantu penerjemah menerjemahkan. Di sinilah kita bisa menggolongkan keterampilan penggunaan teknologi penerjemahan. Terakhir, sub-kompetensi yang paling penting terletak di tengah-tengah di dalam gambar di atas, yaitu sub-kompetensi strategis. Ini adalah subkompetensi yang mengordinasikan subkompetensi lainnya sehingga dapat terciptaka kompetensi terjemahan yang utuh. (Meskipun tidak sama persis, ini bisa dibandingkan dengan strategi metakognitif di dalam teori strategi belajar.) Subkompetensi ini berperan dalam memecahkan masalah dan menjamin efisiensi proses karena subkompetensi ini terkait dengan perencanaan proses penerjemahan dan pembuatan keputusan dalam setiap tahap proses penerjemahan.

Selain terjemahan itu, ada satu kelompok komponen yang mempengaruhi hasil terjemahan, yaitu komponen psiko-fisiologis. Komponen psiko-fisiologis mengacu pada komponen kognitif dan sikap (memori, rentang perhatian, ketekunan, daya kritis, dll.) dan mekanisme psikomotor.

Karena dwibahasan selalu memiliki pengetahuan tentang dua bahasa (Bsu dan Bsa) dan mungkin juga memiliki pengetahuan ekstra-linguistik, maka PACTE Grup menganggap bahwa sub-kompetensi khusus dari kompetensi terjemahan adalah subkompetensi strategis, instrumental dan pengetahuan tentang terjemahan. Sehubungan dengan pembahasan kita sekarang, dengan adanya globalisasi, perkembangan teknologi informasi dan digitalisasi, subkompetensi instrumental perlu mendapat perhatian lebih karena teks-teks yang akan dikerjakan meliputi teks-teks elektronik. Proses Penerjemahan Teks Elektronik Pentingnya keterampilan ini dapat dilihat dari model penerjemahan naskah elektronik usulan Hariyanto (2009).

Untuk lebih jelasnya, perhatikan Gambar 2 berikut ini. Model penerjemahan naskah elektronik (Hariyanto (2009) Di dalam model tersebut, proses penerjemahan dibagi menjadi tiga fase utama: persiapan, proses utama, dan penutup. Ini bisa dibaca di bagian kiri. Di bagian tengah adalah langkah-langkah yang ditempuh oleh penerjemah dan di bagian kanan adalah kompetensi (pengetahuan dan/atau keterampilan) yang dipakai dalam menerjemahkan teks elektronik.

Kalau dibaca secara horizontal, maka didapatlah keterangan bahwa dalam proses persiapan, langkah pertama adalah mempelajari perintah penerjemahan dan butir subkompetensi yang diperlukan adalah keterampilan dwibahasa dan pengetahuan tentang penerjemahan. Dari gambar di atas dapat diketahui bahwa mulai dari fase persiapan, keterampilan instrumental diperlukan untuk mempersiapkan glosari. Mempersiapkan glosari mungkin berarti membuka file atau bahwa menyusun glosari baru.

Hal ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan perangkat lunak manajemen glosari, yang biasanya berhubungan dengan perangkat lunak terjemahan utama (memori terjemahan). Dalam proses utama penerjemahan, keterampilan instrumental yang diperlukan adalah keterampilan untuk menuliskan hasil terjemahan (BSa), untuk menemukan kata atau istilah yang ekuivalen di dalam arsip memori terjemahan, dan juga untuk memanipulasi kode teknis dalam dokumen elektronik. Akhirnya, pada tahap kesimpulan, keterampilan instrumental diperlukan untuk memeriksa terjemahan kualitas terjemahan dari segi linguistic (konsistensi terminologi) dan kualitas teknis (dengan memeriksa apakah format naskah rusak atau beberapa kode teknis hilang atau tidak). Dengan demikian, penguasaan perangkat lunak penerjemahn menjadi mutlak adanya untuk menerjemahkan naskah jenis baru sebagai buah dari perkembangan teknologi informasi. Penutup Pentingnya menguasai keterampilan baru seperti yang dipaparkan di atas sudah disadari oleh Himpunan Penerjemah Indonesia dan beberapa asosiasi penerjemah di Indonesia. Oleh karenanya beberapa pelatihan singkat di bidang ini sudah digelar karena, terutama HPI, khawatir bahwa lapangan kerja di bidang ini akan diambil oleh orang di luar Indonesia.

Sementara itu, di perguruan tinggi Indonesia, hal ini kurang begitu mendapat tanggapan sehingga tidak banyak jurusan bahasa asing yang mengajarkan matakuliah Terjemahan yang mengenalkan keterampilan ini kepada mahasiswanya. Sejatinya, perguruan tinggi yang menawarkan matakuliah Penerjemahan selayaknya mengikuti perkembangan ini dan mengenalkan teknologi penerjemahan ini di dalam sajian kuliahnya. Kalau tidak, maka kemungkinan kerja bagi para mahasiswa hanyalah menjadi penerjemah naskah tertulis dan tidak bisa melebar ke penerjemahan naskah elektronik yang jenisnya sangat beragam, mulai dari menu layar untuk alat elektronik, antarmuka perangkat lunak, sampai halaman web. Mahasiswa juga perlu dikenalkan dengan bagaimana mencari bantuan dengan cepat dan efisien di internet, baik dengan cari melakukan pencarian lewat browser maupun mengenali cara menggunakan situs-situs khusus perjemah seperti Pengajaran Terjemahan idealnya mengonversi keterampilan dan pengetahuan yang diperlukan penerjemah untuk bekerja ke dalam kurikulum matakuliah atau program studi penerjemahan dan, kurikulum itu sendiri harus bersifat fleksibel (Suryawinata, 1982: 23).

Fleksibel di sini artinya mudah beradaptasi dengan situasi yang ada atau dengan kbutuhan terjemahan di lapangan.Selanjutnya Suryawinata (1982: 29) juga menyatakan bahwa pengajaran terjemahan yang dikembangkan berdasarkan teori dan praktek yang relevan akan menghasilkan penerjemah yang baik. Sejauh ini, dalam pengajaran matakuliah Terjemahan di Indonesia, umumnya tidak mengajarkan keterampilan atau subkompetensi instrumental seperti yang disampaikan di atas.

Tidak ada topik-topik ini di dalam katalog matakuliah Penerjemahan di sebagian besar (atau bahkan hampir semua) program studi bahasa asing, termasuk di dalam silabus Program D3 Penerjemahan Universitas Terbuka (UT) (Katalog UT, 2007). Keterampilan dan pengetahuan ini juga tidak diperkenalkan kepada mahasiswa Terjemahan, Departemen Linguistik, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, dan mahasiswa Program Studi Penerjemahan di Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana, Denpasar (Machali, 2009).

Sajauh yang penulis ketahui, Pengantar CAT Tools ini diberikan kepada mahasiswa program pascasarjana dalam Sastra Inggris, bidang peminatan Penerjemahan, di Universitas Gunadarma, Jakarta. Sekarang ini bidang penerjemahan sebagai bidang profesi telah berkembang menjadi GILT (Globalisasi, Internasionalisasi, Lokalisasi dan Terjemahan). Oleh karena itu calon penerjemah harus siap berhadapan dengan dokumen elektronik. Oleh karena itu, sekali lagi, topik terkait CAT Tool harus diperkenalkan kepada mahasiswa program studi Bahasa Inggris atau Penerjemahan. Dengan masuknya topik-topik ini, bisa diharapkan mahasiswa mengembangkan sendiri keterampilannya berdasarkan pengetahuan dasar yang diperoleh di bangkuk kuliah. Tentunya, ini sejalan dengan apa yang Budin (di Hornby, Pochhacker, dan Kaindl, 1992) nyatakan bahwa beberapa megatrend komunikasi, yaitu Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, internasionalisasi, komersialisasi, dan kontekstualisasi, mengarah pada profil profesional yang baru dan kurikulum universitas harus disesuaikan secepat mungkin. Akhir kata, memang tidak bisa dipungkiri bahwa kompetensi linguistik (atau sub-kompetensi dwibahasa) dalam arti yang luas merupakan sub-kompetensi utama untuk penerjemah.

Namun, temuan penelitian Hariyanto (2009) dan pembahasan dalam makalah ini mempertegas bahwa perkembangan teknologi informasi yang menyokong globalisasi dan membawa serta digitalisasi memerlukan adaptasi cepat dari universitas yang mengajarkan Terjemahan sebagai bagian dari kurikulum mereka atau sebagai program studi yang terpisah sehingga kebutuhan penerjemah yang handal bisa dijawab dengan tepat. Daftar Pustaka Crystal, David.

Language and the Internet. New York: Cambridge University Press. Daniel, 2007. Translation as A Profession.

John Benjamins Publishing Co Hariyanto, Sugeng. The Translation of Company Websitesfrom English into Indonesian.

Unpublished Doctorate Dissertation. Gradute Program, UM, Malang Hornby, Mary Snell., Pochhacker, Franz., and Kaindl, Klaus. Translation Studies: An Interdisipline. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Lesznyak, Marta.

Conceptualizing Translation Competence. Across Languages and Cultures. Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues. Meta: Translation Journal, vol 50, No 2, 2005. Http: – cite ref-135 Noam Chomsky Znet 07 May 2002 /The Croatian Feral Tribune 27 April 2002 [4] Mesin penerjemah tidak termasuk di dalam perkembangan baru ini karena mesin penerjemah sendiri mulai dikembangkan sebelum Perang Dunia II dan tidak terkait dengan kemunculan jenis teks baru ini. [5] Kateglo adalah gabungan dari kamus, thesaurus dan glosari yang dikembangkan oleh anggota Bahtera bemama Ivan Lannin yang juga Executive Director Wikimedia Indonesia.

Prihantoro Universitas Diponegoro Abstract Color does not only correspond to light-spectrum-based visual identification of a concrete entity, but it may also symbolize abstract values conceived in a socio-cultural community. Some values are shared, but some others are distinctive. Even in one community, the meaning of a color might be multi-interpretable. For instance, the color of RED is understood as a ‘stop’ command when it comes on traffic light. However, in the compounds such as ‘red specialist’, ‘red herring’, or ‘red army’, we cannot take for granted that the also means ‘stop’. Both linguistic and meta-linguistic awareness are required to define what RED means. This paper seeks to describe the literal and non-literal meaning of RED in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), by focusing on laws and politic section.

By using Keyword(s) in Context (KWIC) method, I have managed to retrieve 328 concordance lines where RED collocates with other token(s). I extracted the lines, including the extended context, for in depth interpretation. Both literal and non-literal meanings of the collocations are categorized into different classes, and the investigation indicates that in laws and politic science text, RED is a color that is often used to address negative polarities such as fallacy and ethnic discrimination. Keywords: Colors, red, negative polarity, corpus, meaning, keywords in context How many colors do you know? The answer to this question might vary depending on two variables: physics and language.

What we commonly understand is that there are 12 colors. However, a recent study in physics (Kinoshita et al, 2008) has showed color is so complex that 12 is merely a simplified figure. On the other hand, some studies in linguistics have shown that there are languages, where the users do not distinguish some colors that are distinctive in another language (let’s say English). Consider Navajo language (Stea et al, 1972), where only one word is addressed to blue and green.

Consider also Shona language that does not distinguish red and orange (De Bortoli & Maroto, 2001). Then how they distinguish the two colors? They technically do not.

Download Compaq Presario Cq43 Wifi Driver. But when necessary, one of the strategies is using the color they know as an attributive to a noun, such as; ‘blue sky’, ‘blue like the sea water’, ‘green leaf’, ‘green like grasses’ and etc. Besides number of colors, serious attention has been given to the topic of color interpretation.

Colors can be understood literally, or non-literally (metaphorically). The literal interpretation of RED[1] is as color itself (as described in physics studies as a particular composition of light spectrum that our eyes perceive).

While to understand the literal meaning of RED requires mere visual and linguistic awareness, to understand the non-literal meaning of RED involves meta-linguistic awareness as well. The focus of this paper is to retrieve expressions involving the lemma RED.

It also seeks to describe and to categorize the meanings of red, both literally and metaphorically. By the end of this research, I will also determine the polarities of RED.

The data for conducting this research is obtained from the social and politic section in the Corpus of Contemporary American English. The next section of this paper deals with related studies the importance of contexts in determining the meaning and polarity of a word. By the end of the next section, I will show the review of these studies and show how my paper can contribute more to the subject of discussion. LITERATURE REVIEW Context, Meaning, and Polarity When human is exposed to speech or text,the information is processed gradually up to the point of comprehension (Fernandez & Cairns, 2011).[2] Comprehension means that human successfully decodes the information. To achieve this, linguistic, meta-linguistic awareness (or both of them) are required to do the decoding process completely. Compare example (1) and (2), and focus on the underlines: (1) The supreme leader finally decided to resign (2) Saddam can no longer fight the resistance.

The supreme leader finally decided to resign Article in (1) indicates that the compound is definite. However, this information is not sufficient to decode to whom does concern or who the supreme leader is.

Compare to example (2) where the anaphoric referent is present. At this point, it is not difficult to understand the referent of. However, you may recover the referent of in (1) if the same knowledge is shared to other participants in the speech event. The knowledge is called meta-linguistic awareness[3]. In some cases, meta-linguistic awareness takes primary role in taking deduction.

One of the examples is in the ambiguity resolution. In the ambiguous sentence, ‘I saw the man with the microscope’, if you know what ‘microscope’ is, you will not deduce this sentence as a tool to see a person. Instead, you will deduce this sentence as there is a man with microscope that you saw. This may happen only when your understanding of microscope is the same as mine.

So, what color means to you? Our conception may be different. Black is often be interpreted as the color of death.

However, in some areas in Indonesia, yellow is the color of the flag that you hoist when someone in your family passes away. If participants in a speech event do not share the same concept, then the recognition of the referent is most likely to fail. This often happens in translation error. (3) I am feeling blue today Hari ini saya sedang sedih (sad) Hari ini saya sedang biru*(literally blue) In English, the color BLUE has negative polarity (sad).

Preserving the color in Indonesian translation makes the sentence semantically not compositional (although it is grammatically correct). A color survey in USA[4] has indicated that people interpret colors to positive, negative polarity or neutral. Aerim et al (2010) built a machine readable dictionary to assign polarities to digital Korean text for sentiment analysis. They believed that there are some lemmas that fall to ‘flexible’ categories. Their argument is that the polarity may shift to [+] or [-] following the companion words.

As an example, the polarity of BIG in ‘mobile phone’s big screen’ is [+], while in ‘big problem’ the polarity is [-]. A recent study from (Yassine & Jeesun, 2014) revealed that even for a lemma that is inherently [+] or [-], the companion word may change the polarity as in ‘very perfect’ where the value is [+] and ‘too perfect’ where the value is [-]. This follows Firth (1957) tradition, as also shared by corpus linguists. Compare ‘a white wizard’ and ‘a white sheep’. In ‘a white wizard’, you are most likely to deduce ‘white’ as good (as opposed to evil).

However, this reasoning for this is because of it is the noun it specifies. In ‘white sheep’, you will resort to its literal meaning that there is a sheep and the color is white (the inherent color of a sheep is white).

If that so, what about ‘black sheep’? It is uncommon for a sheep to be black. In this case, you are most likely to resort to individual difference in a common group, such as a member of family who behaves differently from others.

But consider this sentence, ‘The biological experiment successfully modified sheep’s DNA to give birth to black sheep’. In this case, you will most likely resort to a sheep that is actually black. In literary texts, we may find many referents that are expressed metaphorically.

Literary text is often contrasted to academic text. On one side, academic language is known to be straightforward. On the other side, its readers are segmented (not all people can understand the word choice). Therefore, only people with shared meta-linguistic awareness may understand the meanings. Unlike the previous works, my paper seeks to describe both the linguistic composition and the referents of expressions involving RED in COCA, which is claimed to be the most balanced and representative corpus of American English (Davies, 2008). METHODOLOGY Research Corpus and Automatic Retrieval Research Data The data in this paper is obtained from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (Davies, 2008). A Corpus itself is a collection of texts that is organized in a way that enables users to retrieve information based on queries (Mc Enery & Hardie, 2012).

This might resemble the performance of search engines when you browse internet. However, syntax queries for a corpus are linguistically formulated and works beyond character similarity match. The difference between using a search engine and a corpus interface might be described as follow. When queries are sent to internet, for instance STRIKE, it retrieves all documents where the character match is near or exactly 100%. It does not distinguish STRIKE as a verb or noun, a named entity, an acronym etc. But when you use corpus interface, you can also retrieve linguistic information annotated in the text.

For instance, you can browse different word forms of lemma STRIKE such as, strike, strikes, stroke, striker etc. Some more advanced queries on annotated corpus allow you to retrieve semantic information such as features, polarities, and word relation (synonym, antonym, hypernym etc). Data Collection COCA is composed of texts from different types and this corpus covers a wide range of sections that is written (or transcribed) in American English. Registered users may access the website on. I retrieved lemma RED in the corpus and selected one word form of the highest frequency hits. As for this research, I focused the retrieval on social and politic section of newspaper texts. Because there are different text types (spoken data transcript, fiction, academic, newspaper, magazine etc), the retrieval was controlled to focus to Academic section: law and politic texts.

The result of the retrieval was displayed on concordance lines. Each concordance lines were analyzed to decode the meaning of RED.

Each word form of RED that conceives associative meanings was assigned to different category as opposed to literal meaning. The lists of possible non-literal meanings that are similar were categorized to specific classification. I finally assigned polarity based on this categorization to conclude this research. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Literal and Metaphorical Meanings of RED The retrieval for lemma RED has managed to discover seven results.

In figure 1, result number seven (R.E.D) is not shown, as it is not the word form of lemma RED. This seems to be an acronym and, COCA misretrieved it. Among the six results, is the highest frequency word. Therefore, the research was focused on this word form. As the high frequency word form COCA is composed of five grand section/ text types: spoken, fiction, magazine, newspaper and academic. As I have commented previously, this research is focused on academic section (7160).

See figure 2: Figure 2. Academic Section Frequency hits in academic section shows 7160 hits. However, the academic section is divided into several sub sections.

My focus in this paper is on law and politic, so I went deeper to the law and politic section as shown by figure 3: Figure 3. Law and Politics As I have mentioned previously, the result of KWIC based query is presented in the form of concordance lines.

Figure 4 presents us with some of the concordance lines (total 328 lines). Each concordance line conceives year of publication, section, source, and target keyword with left and right context.

The sample for this research was 25%, which means it focused on 82 lines. The sampling was conducted randomly. Concordance Lines The context for each concordance is left and right context. However, this context can be expanded up to the textual level. As you may see on figure 5, significant improvements are seen on both the source and the text information.

The source displays date, publication information, title, author and the source itself. It also expanded the coverage from just left-right context to the level of body text. Extended Context Color There are some examples when refers to its literal meaning. Consider some entities like,,.

The nouns in the examples are attributed with as they are literally and visually red. Red sea is the sea that might change color to red because it is densely populated with red algae. The same reasoning might apply to red brick and red meat (raw meat). Now consider and in example (4): (4) The existence of an apparatus capable of mounting the required responses is a function of the growth of the world relief system, in large measure represented by the UN system, the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and major non-governmental organizations such as Oxfam What is interesting about the examples is the red itself might be interpreted both literally and non-literally. It is true that the symbols of these institutions are colored red[5]. Then why we do not resort to a cross sign that is red and a crescent (in the sky) that is red?

The presence of the companion words like and has triggered our meta-linguistic awareness to suggest that these two institutions are responsible for rescue missions, and prevent us to resort to false assumption. Ethnic Discrimination Black and white are two colors that are fully contrast. These colors are often used to address two different polarities, like good and evil, positive and negative, rich and poor etc. Ethnicity was once a sensitive issue In America, as well as in South Africa. Even in South Africa, ethnic segregation was authorized by Apartheid system (Downing, 2004). Now I will give you an example of how color in USA discriminates[6] ethnicities. See example (5): (5) Growing numbers of interracial pairings, along with the new terminology, are causing real problems for bureaucrats who insist on categorizing all Americans as colors — red, yellow, black, or white That color is the representation of Ethnicity in USA is also acknowledged by (Yanow, 2003).

In her book, Constructing Race and Ethnicity in USA, she further described the referent of those colors: red for American (Indian), Yellow for (Asian), black for African, and white for Caucasian. However, she also admitted that in the recent days the segregation gap has become small and smaller. Few years later after her publication, USA has it first African-American President, Barrack Obama. Socialist-Communist In COCA, some expressions involving are related to socialism and communism. Although the world war has ended long time ago, this stigma does not end and still last up to now. Consider example (6): (6) The project was resuscitated in the 1970s by its staunchest advocates – the so-called ” red specialists ” who were trained in the Soviet Union as engineers and scientists and are China’s greatest proponents of ” grandiose ” engineering and energy projects The association of to communism and socialism is much related to the two polarities (in the past) between USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) and USA. It is also associated to Republic of China where the governance is run by communist party.

And in fact, the color of the flag of republic of China is also red. An elite soviet army was even named as shown by example (7): (7) Georgii Zhukov, later the famous Marshal Zhukov, one of the most successful Soviet commandants of the victorious Red Army in World War II, was the commander he selected for his anticipated thrust to the west In (6) and (7), is marked by quotation, and upper case respectively. In (7), the initial font is uppercased as it is a proper noun. In (6), it is given a quotation as the writer wants us to 1) focus and 2) resort to metaphorical meaning that red is not only color, but it also signifies socialist-communist ideology. Fallacy Red can also be associated to fallacy, as in the compound. Herring is a kind of fish; and there is an actual herring, in which the color is red. A question may rise why herring is used, or why fish is involved in such negative referent.

You surely remember the expression such as ‘there is something fishy (suspicious)’. But now, let us focus on: (8) I have come to regard economic espionage as something of a red herring in this debate — something that, although wanted by neither the government nor business, provides a distraction from the more compelling practical questions at hand. The compound in example (8) indicates a kind of fallacy, where you propose an idea that mislead or not relevant to the subject of talk. We can understand from the word choice, that there are at least two parties involved in the speech event. The term that is used by the speaker clearly suggested that the topic (economic espionage) that the opposing party is trying to propose is not relevant to his proposition. No-cross-Rules Red means stop.

This is an almost universal color meaning and used in some idiomatic expressions in law and politic science text in COCA. In (9), Ehud Barack clearly said. The extended context implied that Israel would cease (stop) attacking Gaza. (9) In July 2000, prior to his departure for the Camp David summit, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak stipulated to his Cabinet the four ” red lines ” he would not cross during negotiations with the Palestinians. (10) If so, let us work on it and add to it Canadian football. Is it defining the acceptable methods of protection of culture, something like what was done in the WTO on subsidies, red light, green light?

(11) The ABA played a key role, for instance, in efforts by a number of bars to block the Federal Trade Commission’s attempt to regulate lawyers as ” creditors ” under the so-called red flags rule developed by the FTC to help detect identity theft What Ehud Barak wanted to signify here (9) is four details in a rule that he will not cross during the negotiation. In (10), it makes use the ‘traffic light’ association which I believe is quite universal where red means ‘no’ or ‘stop’ and green means ‘yes’ or ‘proceed’. In (11), ‘red flags’ are used to mark an unfortunate event, in this case, theft.

Discomfort I also discover some expressions that is often associated to a discomfort. In (12), refers to an undesirable situation. The subsequent clause ‘limited prospects for survival’ confirms this. (12) We were drenched in red ink and faced with limited prospects for survival.

The situation that signifies in (12) has caused a discomfort. It must be understood negatively, as the impact is limited prospect for survival. The word red is sometimes associated with something bad, or discomfort such as in red zone (dangerous). There is an expression in Indonesian where you get bad grade, which is nilai merah red mark, where in the past, teachers wrote bad grade with red ink.

Emotional Stress The term ‘red face’ is a common expression shared across cultures to express that one is under a circumstance of certain emotional stress. One that might make it universal is the face is literally red; which is cause by the increase of stress related hormones on face skin pigment. The stress may involve anxiety, embarrassment, anger, romantic situation or etc.

(13) A bit of upfront planning can avoid a lot of red faces later when a cloud provider’s doors are locked and the remote servers storing your data start popping up for sale on eBay In (13), the red faces are to be avoided as people get stressed when they are dealing with computer problems, in this case, providers and servers. Complexities The expression ‘red tape’ is used to show multi-layered regulations that people have to go through before doing something, that is considered unnecessary. One however, must go through this, otherwise will not achieve his/her goal. This is usually related to bureaucracy. (14) They are also increasingly willing to travel, live and work abroad, in part out of frustration with the corruption and red tape that continue to stymie entrepreneurial ambitions inside Russia In (13), ‘red tape’ is the subject defined in the relative clause construction as something that stymie or stop you to do something, in this case, entrepreneurship in Russia. So far we have discussed the multi facets meanings of in politics and laws section in the academic COCA.

We know understand that meanings might change with regard to the collocates. There are some expressions where literally means a color. However, when they appear in uncommon combination, such as ‘red tape’, ‘red herring’, ‘red army’ the meaning might change. Besides the collocation, what is more important is readers knowledge. What makes people can understand this, is the shared background with the text or the text writer. The term ‘red tape’ can possibly be understood as a tape that is red in color if the reader does not have the background knowledge required. The term ‘red herring’ can literally be associated to a herring (fish) that is red.

People however are aware of sentence context and investigate this context first when they are unsure of the meaning. When the meaning they project seems to be odd, the will not resort to literal meaning (though not to the correct metaphorical meaning yet). As for this, they can consult existing resources to confirm the meaning. The Meaning of in Politics and Laws Section in Academic COCA Figure 1 shows the multi-facets meanings of in COCA. Here, we can understand that meaning is always negotiated not only by linguistic factors, but also by speaker-readers relation in terms of their knowledge.

CONCLUSION Lemma RED might be used to attribute both abstract and concrete entity. The sample analysis has shown that the polarity of to these entities may be flexible. This follows the finding from Aerim, et al (2010). The color might literally denote a color as in.

However, the investigation has shown that the dominating discoveries about the polarity of in COCA are negative. The color is often associated to racial discrimination and fallacy. The number of shift to positive polarity is present but in insignificant quantity, such as ‘rescue’ in and. The determination of polarity may vary from person to person. For instance, socialism-communism is not always considered negative, and democracy is not always considered positive. However, the most challenging part of this that there are some compounds that may fall to both literal and metaphorical meaning as they are visually red.

To sum up, this paper has shown that the process of understanding the meaning of lemma RED in Social and Politic Science section in COCA strongly requires both linguistic and meta-linguistic awareness. This paper also suggests that other colors are also investigated for further research to widen the coverage of this research topic. REFERENCES Aerim, A., Laporte, E., & Jeesun, N.

Semantic Polarity of Adjectival Predicates in Online Reviews. Seoul International Conference in Linguistics (pp.

Seoul: Korea Linguistic Society. American Corpus. Retrieved August 9, 2014, from The corpus of contemporary American English (COCA): De Bortoli, M., & Maroto, J. Translating colours in web site localisation. Proceedings of the European Languages and the Implementation of Communication and Information Technologies (Elicit) conference (pp. Paisley: University of Paisley.

Apartheid in South Africa. German: Heinnemen Library. Fernandez, E.-M., & Cairns, H.-S. Fundamentals in Psycholinguistics. UK: Blackwell.

Papers in linguistics 1934–1951. London: Oxford University Press. Kinoshita, S., Yoshioka, S., & Miyazaki, J. Physics of structural colors.

Reports on Progress in Physics 71(7), 076401. Mc Enery, T., & Hardie, A. Corpus Linguistics: Method, Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. C., Hull, J., & Proctor, S. Interchange 3rd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Stea, D., Carson, D.-H., & Wisner, B. Navajo Color Categories And Color Discrimination-Experiment In Relation Between Language And Perception. Anthropology UCLA, 4(2), 27-38.

Anthropology UCLA, 4(2), 27-38. Constructing Race and Ethnicity in USA. New York: ME Sharpre Inc. Yassine, F., & Jeesun, N. Study on the Sentiment Polarity Types of Collocations for too and very. Journal of Philology (1), 23-32. [1] In this paper, uppercased words like RED indicate a lemma, or the basic form that is present in the dictionary.

When the words are surrounded by angle brackets they are the word forms, or the orthographic forms. [2] This process is reversed when producing output [4] See Richard, et al (2005) [5] This part is quite tricky. For example, is often addressed to anger. At this point, the meaning seems non-literal. However, the face of someone who is angry may also be red; therefore, literal deduction is not entirely wrong.

[6] The word does not always relate to social discrimination, but it also means ‘to differentiate’ as ‘the respondents successfully discriminated [f] and [v] after several attempts’. By Tunggul Puji Lestari Master’s Program in Lingustics of Brawijaya University This study is conducted to examine the generalisability and the coverage of Anazawa, Ishikawa and Kiuchi’s (2012) findings.

This study uses real interpretation data taken from a court trial transcript. This study shows the five types of interpretation errors are also found in legal interpretation, as well as in medical interpretation as proved by Anazawa, Ishikawa and Kiuchi. The difference in the frequency is possibly caused by the difference of the field of the study where the interpretation is conducted. It is also found that real data research may cover wider area in interpretation’s errors analysis than simulated scenario research. Key words: legal interpretation, interpretation error Interpreting has become an important activity to support the transfer of communication between different language speakers (Napier, 2007; Ra & Napier, 2013). Many factors contribute to the neediness of good interpreter, not only the difference of the language, but also cultural differences and the field of study of the interpretation (Ra and Napier, 2013; Gercek, 2008; Wieringen, Harmsen & Bruijnzeels, 2002). The study of Anazawa, Ishikawa and Kiuchi (2012) entitled The accuracy of medicl interpretations: A pilot study of errors in Japanese-English interpreters during a simulated medical scenario published in The International Journal for Translation and Interpreting Research shows the relationship of those factors.

They design their study from their worry upon the accurateness of interpretation in a field that is so close with life threatening consequences: medical. Re-quoting Brach, Fraser & Paez (2005, p.242) in this study, interpretation blatantly plays important role in determining the quality of communication between patients and physician that may have impact on health resource. Measuring the accuracy of medical interpretation is the main objective in this study. Anazawa, Ishikawa and Kiuchi focus their study on the percentage of errors occurs on medical interpretation.

The errors found in this study are categorized into five: omission, false fluency, substitution, addition and editorialisation. This study was conducted in Tokyo between March 2009 and April 2011, using a simulated case based on the scenario.

The participants of this study were native Japanese speakers who also spoke English fluently. Before the study was conducted, they were informed about the data of the patient and the situation of the patient. The writers argue that this giving information procedure is in a line with the real situation in medical interpretation that the interpreters are also given information about the assigned case.During the study, the scenario was scripted and the actors, that take a role as physician who did not speak English and a patient’s mother who spoke English fluently, were instructed to follow the script. The simulated medical case based on the scenario is believed to help the writers in examining the participants’ performance from a common baseline.

The simulation model in research itself has been discussed in Kleijnen’s Theory and methodology – Verification and validation of simulation models (1993). Kleijnen states that the validation of simulation models may not result in as perfect as the reality. However, the real model may lead to the collection of scarce or abundant data. Kleijnen suggests these data analysis to help validating the data collected from simulated models: sensitivity analysis (based on the design of the experiments and regression analysis) and risk analysis. Those are for estimating which inputs are really important and for quantifying the risks associated with inputs for which no data can be obtained at all, respectively. This study show several interesting results.

After identifying 1,242 utterances in the verbatim transcript, the total of 799 errors occurred with the most frequent interpretation errors are omission-type errors, that is followed by false-fluency errors on the second place but with total errors frequency only a half of the omission-type errors. From the study, it is also revealed that interpreters with less previous experience made more errors than those who are experienced. The discussion points the development of a certification system for medical interpreters should be the priority task. Doubts on Anazawa, Ishikawa and Kiuchi (2012)’s Study On their conclusion and future works chapter, Anazawa, Ishikawa and Kiuchi stated, “ because this study used a simulated situation, the generalisability of our results should be explored in other scenarios and settings, as well as studies of actual medical encounters. It was diifficult to closely analyse communication between interlocutors through interpreters in this scenarion based study of interpretations, because it was not possible to examine the actual consequences of errors.” (2012, p.16) The quotation above shows Anazawa, Ishikawa and Kiuchi’s doubts that arise from the findings of this study. The field of the study, that is medical, seems too narrow to accept this study finding as the imagery of interpretation errors in all fields. Analysis on other fields of interpretation are needed to examine the formulation of five types interpretation errors.

Another doubt that comes from this study.