• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Signature Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; German: ( ); 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German,,,,, and and scholar whose work has exerted a profound influence on and modern intellectual history. He began his career as a before turning to. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the in 1869 at the age of 24. He resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and a complete loss of his mental faculties.

He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897, and then with his sister, and died in 1900. Nietzsche's body of work touched widely on,,,,,, and, and drew early inspiration from figures such as,, and. His writing spans philosophical, poetry,, and fiction while displaying a fondness for and. Some prominent elements of his philosophy include his radical critique of in favor of; his critique of religion and, and his related theory of; his aesthetic of existence in response to the ' and the profound crisis of; his notion of the; and his characterization of the human as the expression of competing, collectively understood as the. In his later work, he developed influential concepts such as the and the doctrine of, and became increasingly preoccupied with the creative powers of the individual to overcome social, cultural, and moral contexts in pursuit of and aesthetic health. After his death, became the curator and editor of her brother's manuscripts, reworking Nietzsche's unpublished writings to fit her own ideology while often contradicting or obfuscating his stated opinions, which were explicitly.

No-registration upload of files up to 250MB. Not available in some countries.

Through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with and; 20th century scholars contested this interpretation of his work and corrected editions of his writings were soon made available. His thought enjoyed renewed popularity in the 1960s, and his ideas have since had a profound impact on 20th and early-21st century thinkers across philosophy—especially in schools of such as,, and —as well as art,,,, and. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Life [ ] Youth (1844–1868) [ ] Born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of, near, in the. He was named after King, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsche's birth. (Nietzsche later dropped his middle name 'Wilhelm'.

) Nietzsche's parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche (1813–1849), a and former teacher, and () (1826–1897), married in 1843, the year before their son's birth. They had two other children: a daughter,, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph, born in 1848.

Nietzsche's father died from a brain ailment in 1849; Ludwig Joseph died six months later, at age two. The family then moved to, where they lived with Nietzsche's maternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters. After the death of Nietzsche's grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche, 1861 Nietzsche attended a boys' school and then a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug,, and Wilhelm Pinder, all of whom came from highly respected families. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in. Because his father had worked for the state (as a pastor) the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized (the claim that Nietzsche was admitted on the strength of his academic competence has been debunked: his grades were nowhere near the top of the class). He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with and Carl von Gersdorff.

He also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led 'Germania', a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. At, Nietzsche received an important grounding in languages—Greek, Latin,, and —so as to be able to read important; he also experienced for the first time being away from his family life in a small-town conservative environment. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German; a 2a in Greek and Latin; a 2b in French, History, and Physics; and a 'lackluster' 3 in Hebrew and Mathematics.

While at, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. He became acquainted with the work of the then almost-unknown poet, calling him 'my favorite poet' and composing an essay in which he said that the mad poet raised consciousness to 'the most sublime ideality.' The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a good mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid, and more 'German' writers. Additionally, he became acquainted with, an eccentric, blasphemous, and often drunken poet who was found dead in a ditch weeks after meeting the young Nietzsche but who may have introduced Nietzsche to the music and writing of.

Perhaps under Ortlepp's influence, he and a student named Richter returned to school drunk and encountered a teacher, resulting in Nietzsche's demotion from first in his class and the end of his status as a. Young Nietzsche After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in and classical philology at the with hope of becoming a minister. For a short time he and Deussen became members of the. After one semester (and to the anger of his mother), he stopped his theological studies and lost his faith. As early as his 1862 essay 'Fate and History', Nietzsche had argued that historical research had discredited the central teachings of Christianity, but 's also seems to have had a profound effect on the young man.

In addition, 's influenced young Nietzsche with its argument that people created God, and not the other way around. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith.

This letter contains the following sentence: 'Hence the ways of men part: if you wish to strive for peace of soul and pleasure, then believe; if you wish to be a devotee of truth, then inquire.' Strongly influenced Nietzsche's earliest philosophical thought. Nietzsche subsequently concentrated on studying philology under Professor, whom he followed to the in 1865. There, he became close friends with his fellow student. Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after.

In 1865, Nietzsche thoroughly studied the works of. He owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading Schopenhauer's and later admitted that Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers whom he respected, dedicating to him the essay ' in the. In 1866, he read 's. Lange's descriptions of 's anti-materialistic philosophy, the rise of European, Europe's increased concern with science, 's theory of, and the general rebellion against tradition and authority intrigued Nietzsche greatly. The cultural environment encouraged him to expand his horizons beyond philology and continue his study of philosophy, [ ] although Nietzsche would ultimately argue the impossibility of an evolutionary explanation of the human aesthetic sense. In 1867, Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary service with the Prussian artillery division in Naumburg.

He was regarded as one of the finest riders among his fellow recruits, and his officers predicted that he would soon reach the rank of captain. However, in March 1868, while jumping into the saddle of his horse, Nietzsche struck his chest against the and tore two muscles in his left side, leaving him exhausted and unable to walk for months. Consequently, Nietzsche turned his attention to his studies again, completing them in 1868 and meeting with for the first time later that year. Professor at Basel (1869–1878) [ ]. Nietzsche, 1882.

Photo by () By 1882 Nietzsche was taking huge doses of but was still having trouble sleeping. In 1883, while staying in Nice, he was writing out his own prescriptions for the sedative, signing them 'Dr. After severing his philosophical ties with (who was long dead and never met Nietzsche) and his social ties with Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now, with the new style of Zarathustra, his work became even more alienating and the market received it only to the degree required by politeness.

Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, though he often complained about it. Paragon Extfs For Windows Crack Free. His books remained largely unsold. In 1885, he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of Zarathustra and distributed only a fraction of these among close friends, including. In 1883 he tried and failed to obtain a lecturing post at the.

It was made clear to him that, in view of his attitude towards Christianity and his concept of God, he had become effectively unemployable by any German university. The subsequent 'feelings of revenge and resentment' embittered him: 'And hence my rage since I have grasped in the broadest possible sense what wretched means (the depreciation of my good name, my character, and my aims) suffice to take from me the trust of, and therewith the possibility of obtaining, pupils.' In 1886 Nietzsche broke with his publisher Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted by his antisemitic opinions. Nietzsche saw his own writings as 'completely buried and unexhumeable in this anti-Semitic dump' of Schmeitzner—associating the publisher with a movement that should be 'utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind'. He then printed at his own expense. He also acquired the publication rights for his earlier works and over the next year issued second editions of The Birth of Tragedy,,, and with new prefaces placing the body of his work in a more coherent perspective. Thereafter, he saw his work as completed for a time and hoped that soon a readership would develop.

In fact, interest in Nietzsche's thought did increase at this time, if rather slowly and hardly perceptibly to him. During these years Nietzsche met,, and. In 1886, his sister Elisabeth married the and travelled to Paraguay to found, a 'Germanic' colony—a plan Nietzsche responded to with mocking laughter.

[ ] Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued through cycles of conflict and reconciliation, but they met again only after his collapse. He continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible.

In 1887, Nietzsche wrote the polemic. During the same year, he encountered the work of, to whom he felt an immediate kinship. He also exchanged letters with and. Brandes, who had started to teach the philosophy of in the 1870s, wrote to Nietzsche asking him to, to which Nietzsche replied that he would come to and read Kierkegaard with him. However, before fulfilling this promise, he slipped too far into illness. In the beginning of 1888, Brandes delivered in Copenhagen one of the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy. Although Nietzsche had previously announced at the end of a new work with the title: Attempt at a, he eventually seems to have abandoned this idea and instead used some of the draft passages to compose and in 1888.

His health seemed to improve, and he spent the summer in high spirits. In the fall of 1888, his writings and letters began to reveal a higher estimation of his own status and 'fate'. He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, however, especially to the recent polemic,. On his 44th birthday, after completing and, he decided to write the autobiography. In its preface—which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generate—he declares, 'Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else.'

In December, Nietzsche began a correspondence with and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation and of the poems that made up his collection. Psychological illness and death (1889–1900) [ ].

Main article: The Apollonian and Dionysian is a two-fold philosophical concept, based on certain features of ancient Greek mythology: and. Even though the concept is famously related to, the poet had already spoken of it, and had talked of. One year before the publication of The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche wrote a fragment titled 'On Music and Words'. In it he asserted the judgment that music is a primary expression of the essence of everything. Secondarily derivative are and, which represent mere appearances of objects.

In this way, is born from. Nietzsche found in classical Athenian tragedy an art form that the pessimism found in the so-called. The Greek spectators, by looking into the abyss of human suffering depicted by characters on stage, passionately and joyously affirmed life, finding it worth living. A main theme in was that the fusion of Dionysian and Apollonian Kunsttrieben ('artistic impulses') forms dramatic arts, or tragedies. He goes on to argue that this fusion has not been achieved since the ancient Greek.

Apollo represents harmony, progress, clarity and logic, whereas Dionysus represents disorder, intoxication, emotion and ecstasy. Nietzsche used these two forces because, for him, the world of mind and order on one side, and passion and chaos on the other formed principles that were fundamental to the: the Apollonian side being a dreaming state, full of illusions; and Dionysian being the state of intoxication, representing the liberations of instinct and dissolution of boundaries. In this mold, man appears as the. He is the horror of the annihilation of the principle of and at the same time someone who delights in its destruction.

Both of these principles are meant to represent states that appear through art as the power of nature in man. The relationship between the Apollonian and Dionysian juxtapositions is apparent, in the interplay of tragedy: the tragic hero of the drama, the main protagonist, struggles to make order (in the Apollonian sense) of his unjust and chaotic (Dionysian) fate, though he dies unfulfilled in the end.

Elaborating on the conception of as an intellectual who cannot make up his mind, and therefore is a living to the man of action, Nietzsche argues that a Dionysian figure possesses knowledge to realize that his actions cannot change the eternal balance of things, and it disgusts him enough not to be able to make any act at all. Hamlet falls under this category—he has glimpsed the supernatural reality through the Ghost, he has gained true knowledge and knows that no action of his has the power to change this. For the audience of such drama, this tragedy allows them to sense an underlying essence, what Nietzsche called the Primordial Unity, which revives Dionysian nature. He describes this primordial unity as the increase of strength, experience of fullness and plenitude bestowed. Frenzy acts as an intoxication, and is crucial for the condition that enables making of any art. Stimulated by this state, a person's artistic will is enhanced: 'In this state one enriches everything out of one's own fullness: whatever one sees, whatever wills is seen swelled, taut, strong, overloaded with strength.

A man in this state transforms things until they mirror his power—until they are reflections of his perfection. This having to transform into perfection is—art.' Nietzsche is adamant that the works of and represent the apex of artistic creation, the true realization of tragedy; it is with, he states, that tragedy begins its Untergang (literally 'going under' or 'downward-way,' meaning decline, deterioration, downfall, death, etc.).

Nietzsche objects to Euripides' use of and in his tragedies, claiming that the infusion of and robs tragedy of its foundation, namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian. Emphasized reason to such a degree that he diffused the value of and suffering to human knowledge. Continued with this path in his dialogues, and the modern world eventually inherited reason at the expense of artistic impulses that could be found only in the Apollonian and Dionysus dichotomy. This leads to his conclusion that European culture from the time of Socrates had always been only Apollonian and thus and unhealthy.

He notes that whenever Apollonian culture dominates, the Dionysian lacks the structure to make a coherent art, and when Dionysian dominates, the Apollonian lacks the necessary passion. Only the beautiful middle, the interplay of these two forces, brought together as an art, represented real Greek tragedy. An example of the impact of this idea can be seen in the book Patterns of Culture, where uses Nietzschean opposites of 'Apollonian' and 'Dionysian' as the stimulus for her thoughts about. Has written extensively on the dichotomy in.

Has commented that his book should be read 'under the sun of the great Nietzschean inquiry'. Here Foucault references Nietzsche's description of the birth and death of tragedy and his explanation that the subsequent tragedy of the Western world was the refusal of the tragic and, with that, refusal of the sacred. Painter was influenced by Nietzsche's view of tragedy, which were presented in The Birth of Tragedy.

Perspectivism [ ]. Main article: Nietzsche claimed the death of God would eventually lead to the loss of any universal perspective on things, and along with it any coherent sense of.

[ ] Nietzsche himself rejected the idea of objective reality, arguing that knowledge is and conditional, relative to various fluid perspectives or interests. This leads to constant reassessment of rules (i.e., those of philosophy, the scientific method, etc.) according to the circumstances of individual perspectives. This view has acquired the name. In, Nietzsche proclaims that a table of values hangs above every great person.

He points out that what is common among different peoples is the act of esteeming, of creating values, even if the values are different from one people to the next. Nietzsche asserts that what made people great was not the content of their beliefs, but the act of valuing. Thus the values a community strives to articulate are not as important as the collective will to see those values come to pass. The willing is more essential than the intrinsic worth of the goal itself, according to Nietzsche. 'A thousand goals have there been so far,' says Zarathustra, 'for there are a thousand peoples.

Only the yoke for the thousand necks is still lacking: the one goal is lacking. Humanity still has no goal.' Hence, the title of the aphorism, 'On The Thousand And One Goals'. The idea that one value-system is no more worthy than the next, although it may not be directly ascribed to Nietzsche, has become a common premise in modern social science. And absorbed it and made it their own. It shaped their philosophical and cultural endeavor, as well as their political understanding. Weber, for example, relies on Nietzsche's perspectivism by maintaining that objectivity is still possible—but only after a particular perspective, value, or end has been established.

Among his critique of traditional philosophy of, and in, Nietzsche attacked and ('I think, therefore I am') as beliefs based on naive acceptance of previous notions and. Philosopher puts Nietzsche in a high place in the history of philosophy. While criticizing nihilism and Nietzsche together as a sign of general decay, he still commends him for recognizing psychological motives behind Kant and 's moral philosophy: For it was Nietzsche's historic achievement to understand more clearly than any other philosopher.not only that what purported to be appeals of were in fact expressions of subjective will, but also the nature of the problems that this posed for philosophy. The 'slave revolt' in morals [ ]. Main article: In and, Nietzsche's account of the development of modern moral systems occupies a central place.

For Nietzsche, a fundamental shift took place during human history from thinking in terms of good and bad toward good and evil. The initial form of morality was set by a warrior and other ruling castes of ancient civilizations.

Aristocratic values of good and bad coincided with and reflected their relationship to lower such as slaves. Nietzsche presents this 'master morality' as the original system of morality—perhaps best associated with Greece.

To be 'good' was to be happy and to have the things related to happiness: wealth, strength, health, power, etc. To be 'bad' was to be like the slaves the aristocracy ruled over: poor, weak, sick, pathetic—an object of pity or disgust rather than hatred. 'Slave morality' comes about as a reaction to master-morality. Here, value emerges from the contrast between good and evil: good being associated with other-worldliness, charity, piety, restraint, meekness, and submission; and evil seen as worldly, cruel, selfish, wealthy, and aggressive. Nietzsche sees slave morality as pessimistic and fearful, values for them serving only to ease the existence for those who suffer from the very same thing.

He associates slave-morality with the Jewish and Christian traditions, in a way that slave-morality is born out of the of slaves. Nietzsche argued that the idea of equality allowed slaves to overcome their own condition without hating themselves. And by denying the inherent inequality of people (such as success, strength, beauty or intelligence), slaves acquired a method of escape, namely by generating new values on the basis of rejecting something that was seen as a perceived source of frustration.

It was used to overcome the slave's own sense of inferiority before the (better-off) masters. It does so by making out slave weakness to be a matter of choice, by, e.g., relabeling it as 'meekness'. The 'good man' of master morality is precisely the 'evil man' of slave morality, while the 'bad man' is recast as the 'good man'. Nietzsche sees the slave-morality as a source of the nihilism that has overtaken Europe. Modern Europe and Christianity exist in a hypocritical state due to a tension between master and slave morality, both values contradictorily determining, to varying degrees, the values of most Europeans (who are '). Nietzsche calls for exceptional people to no longer be ashamed of their uniqueness in the face of a supposed morality-for-all, which he deems to be harmful to the flourishing of exceptional people.

He cautions, however, that morality, per se, is not bad; it is good for the masses, and should be left to them. Exceptional people, on the other hand, should follow their own 'inner law'. A favorite motto of Nietzsche, taken from, reads: 'Become what you are.' A long standing assumption about Nietzsche is that he preferred master over slave morality.

However, the Nietzsche scholar rejected this interpretation, writing that Nietzsche's analyses of these two types of morality were only used in a and historic sense, they were not meant for any kind of acceptance or glorifications. In, Nietzsche begins his 'Campaign against Morality'. He calls himself an 'immoralist' and harshly criticizes the prominent moral philosophies of his day:,, and. Nietzsche's concept ' applies to the doctrines of Christendom, though not to all other faiths: he claimed that is a successful religion that he compliments for fostering critical thought.

Still, Nietzsche saw his philosophy as a counter-movement to nihilism through appreciation of: Art as the single superior counterforce against all will to negation of life, art as the anti-Christian, anti-Buddhist, anti-Nihilist par excellence.' Nietzsche claimed that the Christian faith as practised was not a proper representation of Jesus' teachings, as it forced people merely to believe in the way of Jesus but not to act as Jesus did, in particular his example of refusing to judge people, something that Christians had constantly done the opposite of. He condemned institutionalized Christianity for emphasizing a morality of ( Mitleid), which assumes an inherent illness in society: Christianity is called the religion of pity.

Pity stands opposed to the tonic emotions which heighten our vitality: it has a depressing effect. We are deprived of strength when we feel pity.

That loss of strength which suffering as such inflicts on life is still further increased and multiplied by pity. Pity makes suffering contagious. In Nietzsche called the establishment of moral systems based on a dichotomy of a 'calamitous error', and wished to initiate a of the of the Judeo-Christian world. He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more naturalistic source of value in the vital impulses of life itself. While Nietzsche attacked the principles of, he was not: in his work, he explicitly condemns antisemitism, and points out that his attack on Judaism was not an attack on contemporary Jewish people but specifically an attack upon the ancient Jewish priesthood whom he claims paradoxically based their views upon.

An Israeli historian who performed a statistical analysis of everything Nietzsche wrote about Jews claims that cross references and context make clear that almost all (85%) negative comments are actually attacks on Christian doctrine or, sarcastically, on Richard Wagner. Nietzsche felt that modern antisemitism was 'despicable' and against European ideals. Its cause, in his opinion, was the growth in European and the endemic 'jealousy and hatred' of Jewish success. He wrote that Jews should be thanked for helping uphold a respect for the philosophies of Ancient Greece, and for giving rise to 'the noblest human being (Christ), the purest philosopher (), the mightiest book, and the most effective moral code in the world.'

Death of God and nihilism [ ]. Main articles: and The statement ', occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in ), has become one of his best-known remarks. On the basis of it, most commentators regard Nietzsche as an; others (such as Kaufmann) suggest that this statement reflects a more subtle understanding of divinity. Recent developments in modern science and the increasing of European society had effectively 'killed' the God, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years.

The death of God may lead beyond bare perspectivism to outright, the belief that nothing has any inherent importance and that life lacks purpose. Here he states that the Christian moral doctrine provides people with, belief in God (which the evil in the world) and a basis for.

In this sense, in constructing a world where objective knowledge is possible, Christianity is an antidote to a primal form of nihilism—the despair of meaninglessness. As put the problem, 'If as the suprasensory ground and goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself.' One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Nietzsche calls passive nihilism, which he recognises in the philosophy of. Schopenhauer's doctrine—which Nietzsche also refers to as —advocates separating oneself from will and desires in order to reduce suffering. Nietzsche characterises this attitude as a 'will to nothingness', whereby life turns away from itself, as there is nothing of value to be found in the world. This moving away of all value in the world is characteristic of the nihilist, although in this, the nihilist appears to be inconsistent: A nihilist is a man who judges that the real world ought not to be, and that the world as it ought to be does not exist. According to this view, our existence (action,, willing, feeling) has no meaning: this 'in vain' is the nihilists' pathos—an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists.

— Friedrich Nietzsche, KSA 12:9 [60], taken from The Will to Power, section 585, translated by Nietzsche approaches the problem of nihilism as a deeply personal one, stating that this problem of the modern world is a problem that has 'become conscious' in him. Furthermore, he emphasizes both the danger of nihilism and the possibilities it offers, as seen in his statement that 'I praise, I do not reproach, [nihilism's] arrival. I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes master of this crisis, is a question of his strength!' According to Nietzsche, it is only when nihilism is overcome that a culture can have a true foundation on which to thrive. He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure. Heidegger interprets the death of God with what he explains as the death of.

He concludes that metaphysics has reached its potential and that the ultimate fate and downfall of metaphysics was proclaimed with the statement 'God is dead'. Will to power [ ].

Main article: A basic element in Nietzsche's philosophical outlook is the ' ( der Wille zur Macht), which he maintained provides a basis for understanding human behavior—more so than competing explanations, such as the ones based on pressure for adaptation or survival. As such, according to Nietzsche, the drive for conservation appears as the major motivator of human or animal behavior only in exceptions, as the general condition of life is not one of emergency, of 'struggle for existence'. More often than not, self-conservation is but a consequence of a creature's will to exert its strength on the outside world. In presenting his theory of human behavior, Nietzsche also addressed, and attacked, concepts from philosophies popularly embraced in his days, such as Schopenhauer's notion of an aimless will or that of.

Project Igi 2 Free Download Softonic there. Utilitarians claim that what moves people is mainly the desire to be happy, to accumulate pleasure in their lives. But such a conception of happiness Nietzsche rejected as something limited to, and characteristic of, the bourgeois lifestyle of the English society, and instead put forth the idea that happiness is not an aim per se—it is instead a consequence of a successful pursuit of one's aims, of the overcoming of hurdles to one's actions—in other words, of the fulfillment of the will. Related to his theory of the will to power, is his speculation, which he did not deem final, regarding the reality of the physical world, including inorganic matter—that, like man's affections and impulses, the material world is also set by the dynamics of a form of the will to power.

At the core of his theory is a rejection of —the idea that matter is composed of stable, indivisible units (atoms). Instead, he seems to have accepted the conclusions of, who explained the qualities of matter as a result of an interplay of forces. One study of Nietzsche defines his fully developed concept of the will to power as 'the element from which derive both the quantitative difference of related forces and the quality that devolves into each force in this relation' revealing the will to power as 'the principle of the synthesis of forces.' Of such forces Nietzsche said they could perhaps be viewed as a primitive form of the will.

Likewise he rejected as a mere interpretation the view that the movement of bodies is ruled by inexorable laws of nature, positing instead that movement was governed by the power relations between bodies and forces. Other scholars disagree that Nietzsche considered the material world to be a form of the will to power. Nietzsche thoroughly criticized metaphysics, and by including the will to power in the material world, he would simply be setting up a new metaphysics.

Other than aphorism 36 in Beyond Good and Evil, where he raised a question regarding will to power as being in the material world, it was only in his notes (unpublished by himself), where he wrote about a metaphysical will to power. Nietzsche directed his landlord to burn those notes in 1888 when he left Sils Maria for the last time. Eternal return [ ]. Main article: A trained philologist, Nietzsche had a thorough knowledge of. He read,,, and, who became his main opponents in his philosophy, and later, whom he saw as his 'precursor' in many respects but as a personification of the 'ascetic ideal' in others. However, Nietzsche referred to Kant as a 'moral fanatic', Plato as 'boring', Mill as a 'blockhead', and of Spinoza he said: 'How much of personal timidity and vulnerability does this masquerade of a sickly recluse betray?' He likewise expressed contempt for British author.

Nietzsche's philosophy, while innovative and revolutionary, was indebted to many predecessors. While at Basel, Nietzsche offered lecture courses on pre-Platonic philosophers for several years, and the text of this lecture series has been characterized as a 'lost link' in the development of his thought.

'In it concepts such as the will to power, the eternal return of the same, the overman, gay science, self-overcoming and so on receive rough, unnamed formulations and are linked to specific pre-Platonics, especially Heraclitus, who emerges as a pre-Platonic Nietzsche.' The thinker was known for the rejection of the concept of as a constant and eternal principle of universe, and his embrace of 'flux' and incessant change. His symbolism of the world as 'child play' marked by amoral spontaneity and lack of definite rules was appreciated by Nietzsche.

From his Heraclitean sympathy, Nietzsche was also a vociferous detractor of, who opposed Heraclitus and believed all world is a single Being with no change at all. In his Egotism in German Philosophy, claimed that Nietzsche's whole philosophy was a reaction to Schopenhauer. Santayana wrote that Nietzsche's work was 'an emendation of that of Schopenhauer. The will to live would become the will to dominate; pessimism founded on reflection would become optimism founded on courage; the suspense of the will in contemplation would yield to a more biological account of intelligence and taste; finally in the place of pity and asceticism (Schopenhauer's two principles of morals) Nietzsche would set up the duty of asserting the will at all costs and being cruelly but beautifully strong. These points of difference from Schopenhauer cover the whole philosophy of Nietzsche.'

Nietzsche expressed admiration for 17th-century French moralists such as, and, as well as for. The of influenced Nietzsche, as did that of and. Nietzsche wrote in a letter in 1867 that he was trying to improve his German style of writing with the help of, and Schopenhauer.

It was probably Lichtenberg (along with ) whose aphoristic style of writing contributed to Nietzsche's own use of instead of an. Nietzsche early learned of through. The essays of had a profound influence on Nietzsche, who 'loved Emerson from first to last', wrote 'Never have I felt so much at home in a book', and called him '[the] author who has been richest in ideas in this century so far.' Influenced Nietzsche's view on and. Notably, he also read some of the posthumous works of, 's My Religion, 's Life of Jesus and 's Demons. Nietzsche called Dostoevsky 'the only psychologist from whom I have anything to learn.'

While Nietzsche never mentions, the similarities in their ideas have prompted a minority of interpreters to suggest a. In 1861 Nietzsche wrote an enthusiastic essay on his 'favorite poet',, mostly forgotten at that time.

He also expressed deep appreciation for Stifter's, Byron's and Twain's. Reception [ ]. See also: • (1870) • (1871) • (1872) • (1873) • (1873) • We Philologists (1874, posthumous) • (1876) • (1878) • (1881) • (1882) • (1883) • (1886) • (1887) • (1888) • (1888) • (1888) • (1888) • (1888) • (unpublished manuscripts edited by ) • (1869–1889): a translation of Nietzsche's notebooks, so far only available in German (called 'Nachlass') and Dutch (called 'Nagelaten Fragmenten'). • The Peacock and the Buffalo: The Poetry of Nietzsche (2010) (first complete English translation of Nietzsche's poetry) See also [ ]. • Cate, Curtis (2005). Friedrich Nietzsche. Woodstock, NY:.

• Deleuze, Gilles (2006) [1983].. Hugh Tomlinson. Athlone Press.. • Golomb, Jacob, ed.

• Heidegger, Martin. The Word of Nietzsche.

• Kaufmann, Walter (1974). Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. Princeton University Press..

• Lampert, Laurence (1986). Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of 'Thus Spoke Zarathustra'. New Haven: Yale University Press..

• Roochnik, David (2004). Retrieving the Ancients. A History of Western Philosophy. London & Toronto: JM Dent & Sons. • Sedgwick, Peter R (2009). Nietzsche: the key concepts.

Routledge, Oxon, England: Routledge. • Higgins, Kathleen (2000). What Nietzsche Really Said. University of Texas, Austin, Texas: Random House, NY. Further reading [ ].