Social Criticism Review - Selected readings SOCIAL CRITICISM REVIEW SELECTED READINGS High time for the next generation of protest Search: Edit menu, Find • • • • • • • Special sections Progress and its critics • • • Luddite: rebel against technology • • • • • • • Science in a free society: open up to criticism • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Rationalization: our guiding principle has gone astray 'Modernity is the 'disenchantment of the world' through the powerful agencies of science and capitalism.' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Addicted to technology More things do not make people happier • • • • • • • • • • • Technology and its social side-effects • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Can we - should we - compensate our loss of community with virtual community? • • • • • • • • • • 'Progress celebrates victories over nature. Progress makes purses out of human skin. When people were traveling in mail coaches, the world got ahead better than it does now that salesmen fly through the air. What good is speed if the brain has oozed out on the way? How will the heirs of this age be taught the most basic motions that are necessary to activate the most complicated machines?

Nature can rely on progress; it will avenge it for the outrage it has perpetrated on it.' - Karl Kraus • Debt boomerang of the Third World: deforestation, drugs, aids, refugees, and global conflict • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Crisis of capitalism: the counterproductive end of economic growth 'Growth for the sake of growth is the ideology of the cancer cell.'

• • • Racism is the belief in the superiority of one race over another, which often results in and towards people based on their. Today, the use of the term 'racism' does not easily fall under a single definition.

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The underlying racist practices often includes the idea that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different due to their social behavior and their innate capacities as well as the idea that they can be ranked as inferior or superior. The is a classic example of which led to the death of millions of people based on race. While the concepts of race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in both popular usage and older social science literature. 'Ethnicity' is often used in a sense close to one traditionally attributed to 'race': the division of human groups based on qualities assumed to be essential or innate to the group (e.g. Shared ancestry or shared behavior).

Therefore, racism and are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to a, there is no distinction between the terms 'racial' and 'ethnic' discrimination. The UN convention further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Racism can be present in, practices, or (e.g., ) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include,,,, ranking,, and related social phenomena. An early use of the word 'racism' by in 1902: ' Association of races and classes is necessary to destroy racism and.'

In the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, i.e., subscribing to the belief that the human population can be classified according to race. The origin of the root word 'race' is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from, but there is no such agreement on how it came into Latin-based languages, generally. A recent proposal is that it derives from the ra's, which means 'head, beginning, origin' or the rosh, which has a similar meaning.

Early race theorists generally held the view that some races were inferior to others and they consequently believed that the differential treatment of races was fully justified. These early theories guided research assumptions; the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed, though this term is a misnomer due to the lack of any actual science backing the claims. Today, most,, and reject a of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as, ethnicity or a history of.

To date, there is little evidence in research which indicates that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in determining a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the (2008) simply defines as 'An earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it,' and cites it in a 1902 quote. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term 'racism' in a quote from the following year, 1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as '[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race', which gives 1936 as the first recorded use. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a of racialism: 'belief in the superiority of a particular race'. By the end of, racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism: racism now implied racial, racial and a harmful intent. (The term 'race hatred' had also been used by sociologist in the late 1920s.) As its history indicates, the popular use of the word racism is relatively recent.

The word came into widespread usage in the in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of, which saw 'race' as a naturally given political unit. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, but there is not a wide agreement on a single definition of what racism is and what it is not.

Today, some scholars of racism prefer to use the concept in the plural racisms in order to emphasize its many different forms that do not easily fall under a single definition and they also argue that different forms of racism have characterized different historical periods and geographical areas. Garner (2009: p. 11) summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical relationship between groups; second, a set of ideas (an ideology) about racial differences; and, third, discriminatory actions (practices).

Legal Though many countries around the globe have passed related to race and discrimination, the first significant international instrument developed by the (UN) was the (UDHR). The UDHR was adopted by the in 1948. The UDHR recognizes that if people are to be treated with dignity, they require, including, and the rights to and participation and.

It further states that everyone is entitled to these rights 'without distinction of any kind, such as race,,,,, political or other opinion, or origin, property, birth or other status.' The UN does not define 'racism'; however, it does define 'racial discrimination': According to the 1965 UN, the term 'racial discrimination' shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour,, or national or origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. In their 1978 Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (Article 1), the UN states, 'All human beings belong to a single species and are descended from a common stock. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form an integral part of humanity.'

The UN definition of racial discrimination does not make any distinction between discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two has been a matter of debate among, including. Similarly, in the phrase racial group means 'any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin'. In, the word 'race' has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination because the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical. The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent and skin color. Social and behavioral science. Main article:, in general, recognize 'race' as a. This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies.

Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the and level. While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on 'white racism' in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe. Thus, racism can be broadly defined to encompass individual and group prejudices and acts of discrimination that result in material and cultural advantages conferred on a majority or a dominant social group.

So-called 'white racism' focuses on societies in which white populations are the majority or the dominant social group. In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed '. Race and race relations are prominent areas of study in and. Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of the earliest sociological works on racism were penned by sociologist, the first African American to earn a doctoral degree from.

Du Bois wrote, 'The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the.' Wellman (1993) defines racism as 'culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities'.

In both sociology and economics, the outcomes of racist actions are often measured by the in,,, and access to other cultural resources, such as education, between racial groups. In sociology and, and the acquisition of that identity, is often used as a variable in racism studies.

Racial ideologies and racial identity affect individuals' perception of race and discrimination. Cazenave and Maddern (1999) define racism as 'a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racial centrality (the extent to which a culture recognizes individuals' racial identity) appears to affect the degree of discrimination African American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination. Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and social beliefs.

Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West where racism is often in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice. The 'newer' (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore as well as challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly, even among those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an or is still maintained subconsciously. This process has been studied extensively in social psychology as implicit associations and, a component of.

Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable. They come about from various influences in the individual experience. Implicit attitudes are not consciously identified (or they are inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate favorable or unfavorable feeling, thought, or action towards social objects. These thoughts, feelings or actions have an influence on behavior of which the individual may not be aware.

Therefore, subconscious racism can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are subliminally exposed to faces of different colors. In thinking about crime, for example, (2004) of holds that, 'blackness is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects.'

Such exposures influence our minds and they can cause subconscious racism in our behavior towards other people or even towards objects. Thus, racist thoughts and actions can arise from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware. Humanities, and are active areas of study in the, along with and the. Seeks to reveal the meaning of race and the actions of racists through careful study of the ways in which these factors of human society are described and discussed in various written and oral works. Van Dijk (1992), for example, examines the different ways in which descriptions of racism and racist actions are depicted by the perpetrators of such actions as well as by their victims.

He notes that when descriptions of actions have negative implications for the majority, and especially for white elites, they are often seen as controversial and such controversial interpretations are typically marked with quotation marks or they are greeted with expressions of distance or doubt. The previously cited book, by W.E.B.

Du Bois, represents early that describes the author's experiences with racism when he was traveling in the as an African American. Much American fictional literature has focused on issues of racism and the black 'racial experience' in the US, including works written by whites such as,, and, or even the non-fiction work. These books, and others like them, feed into what has been called the ', in which the heroes and heroines are white even though the story is about things that happen to black characters. Of such writings can contrast sharply with black authors' descriptions of African Americans and their experiences in US society. African American writers have sometimes been portrayed in as retreating from racial issues when they write about ', while others identify this as an African American literary tradition called 'the literature of white estrangement', part of a multipronged effort to challenge and dismantle in the US. Popular usage Racism can be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits from the of others, whether that group wants such benefits or not.

Colosseum Road To Freedom Pcsx2. Foucauldian scholar Ladelle McWhorter in her 2009 book Racism and Sexual Oppression in Anglo-America: A Genealogy posits modern racism similarly, focusing on the notion of a dominant group, usually whites, vying for racial purity and progress, rather than an overt or obvious ideology focused on the oppression of nonwhites. In popular usage, as in some academic usage, little distinction is made between 'racism' and '. Often, the two are listed together as 'racial and ethnic' in describing some action or outcome that is associated with prejudice within a majority or dominant group in society. Furthermore, the meaning of the term racism is often conflated with the terms prejudice,, and discrimination.

Racism is a complex concept that can involve each of those, but it cannot be equated with nor is it synonymous with these other terms. Also, the term is often used in relation to what is seen as prejudice within a minority or subjugated group, as in the concept of '. Reverse racism describes discriminatory actions by members of a minority group against a dominant or formerly dominant racial or other group representative of the majority in a particular society.

Those who campaign for the interests of ethnic minorities commonly reject the term 'reverse racism'. From their perspective, 'racism' is defined not only in terms of individual prejudice, but also in terms of a power structure which protects the interests of the dominant culture and actively discriminates against ethnic minorities. From this perspective, they claim that while members of ethnic minorities may be prejudiced against members of the dominant culture, they lack the political and economic power to actively oppress them, and they are therefore incapable of 'racism'.

Specifically, the word 'racism' appears to have been coined by, a German- medical researcher who specialized in the field of, or the scientific study of sex. The second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (1989) lists the first known use of the word in English as appearing in the 1936 book by, a self-described and advocate of in America. However, Hirschfeld, who died in 1935, used the word in the title of his book Racism, written in German a year before the first known use of the word by Dennis, and the word 'racism' is used throughout the text.

The word is a pejorative and was always intended as such; Hirschfeld himself denounced those he viewed as racist, and very few if any people use the word to describe themselves or their ideas, only those ideas they disagree with or find reprehensible. Aspects The ideology underlying racism can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Such aspects are described in this section, although the list is not exhaustive. Aversive racism.

Main article: Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and explicit discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, expressions and attitudes. Aversive racism is similar in implications to the concept of symbolic or modern racism (described below), which is also a form of implicit, unconscious, or covert attitude which results in unconscious forms of discrimination.

The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to a particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes. People who behave in an aversively racial way may profess egalitarian beliefs, and will often deny their racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they change their behavior when dealing with a member of another race or ethnic group than the one they belong to.

The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious. Experiments have provided empirical support for the existence of aversive racism. Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior. Color blindness.

Main article: In relation to racism, Color blindness is the disregard of racial characteristics in, for example in the rejection of affirmative action, as way to address the results of past patterns of discrimination. Critics of this attitude argue that by refusing to attend to racial disparities, racial color blindness in fact unconsciously perpetuates the patterns that produce racial inequality. Argues that color blind racism arises from an 'abstract, biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism'. Color blind practices are 'subtle,, and apparently nonracial' because race is explicitly ignored in decision making.

If race is disregarded in predominately white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the standard, whereas are, and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased. At an individual level, people with 'color blind prejudice' reject racist ideology, but also reject systemic policies intended to fix. See also: Cultural racism is a term used to describe and explain new racial ideologies and practices that have emerged since World War II. It can be defined as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of a given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with, which is often characterised by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an by members of an. Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning different ethnic or population groups.

Where racism can be characterised by the belief that one race is inherently superior to another, cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one culture is inherently superior to another. Germany, 1933 Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. In 2011, agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that its mortgage division, Countrywide Financial, against black and Hispanic homebuyers. During the, Spaniards developed a complex based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a person's importance in society. While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system. Further information:,,,, and (also known as structural racism, or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals.

Is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as 'the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin'. Argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were 'the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples'. Main article: Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.

Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. To objectify a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orient exemplifies this as it was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive.

By making these generalizations and othering the East, Europe was simultaneously defining herself as the norm, further entrenching the gap. Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference.

Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that 'we' are 'here' and the 'others' are over 'there'. Imagined differences serve to categorize people into groups and assign them characteristics that suit the imaginer's expectations. Racial discrimination.

Main article: External video,, 14:20, February 20, 2015 Racial segregation is the separation of humans into in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home. Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by 's models of segregation and subsequent work.

In 1899 (a personification of the United States) balances his new possessions which are depicted as savage children. The figures are,,, and 'Lad robes' (the ).

Centuries of in the, and were often justified by attitudes. During the early 20th century, the phrase ' was widely used to justify an policy as a noble enterprise. A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of the indigenous people as 'merciless Indian savages' (as described in the ). In a 1890 article about colonial expansion onto Native American land, author wrote: 'The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians.' Attitudes of,, and also exist.

A rally against in 1959. Some scholars argue that in the US earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as 'modern racism' and it is characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated. This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race.

Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities and the exhibition of indirect forms of micro-aggression toward and/or avoidance of people of other races. Subconscious biases Recent research has shown that individuals who consciously claim to reject racism may still exhibit race-based subconscious biases in their decision-making processes.

While such 'subconscious racial biases' do not fully fit the definition of racism, their impact can be similar, though typically less pronounced, not being explicit, conscious or deliberate. International law and racial discrimination In 1919, a to include a racial equality provision in the was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at the. Article 1 of the 1945 includes 'promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race' as UN purpose.

In 1950, suggested in —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as,,,, etc.—to 'drop the term race altogether and instead speak of '. The statement condemned theories that had played a role in.

It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning 'the race question,' and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the and its assumption of for all. Along with Myrdal's (1944), The Race Question influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision in '. Also in 1950, the was adopted, widely used on racial discrimination issues. The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the, adopted in 1966. any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. (Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) In 2001, the explicitly banned racism, along with many other forms of social discrimination, in the, the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to: 'Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.'

A sign on a beach during the era of Racism existed during the 19th century as ', which attempted to provide a of humanity. In 1775 divided the world's population into five groups according to skin color (Caucasians, Mongols, etc.), positing the view that the non-caucasians had arisen through a process of degeneration. Another early view in scientific racism was the, which held that the different races had been separately created. Polygenist for example, split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the 'beautiful White race' and the 'ugly Black race'. In Meiners' book, The Outline of History of Mankind, he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only the white race as beautiful.

He considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral and animal-like. Demonstrated that neither Europeans nor others are one 'pure race', but of mixed origins. While, derivations of Blumenbach's taxonomy are for the classification of the population in the United States., while strongly emphasizing that all humans today are of mixed origins, in 1907 claimed that the origins of human differences must be traced extraordinarily far back in time, and conjectured that the 'purest race' today would be the. Scientific racism fell strongly out of favor in the early 20th Century, but the origins of fundamental human and societal differences are still researched within, in fields such as including,,,,,,,, and.

There is widespread rejection of any methodology based on anything similar to Blumenbach's races. It is more unclear to which extent and when and are accepted.

Although after and, racist ideologies were discredited on ethical, political and scientific grounds, racism and racial discrimination have remained widespread around the world. From time to time when there is a revival of social and political tensions, new works are published which repeat past and discredited racial views such as J R Baker's 'Race'. Because of the social disapproval of explicit expressions of racism, contemporary authors may achieve a similar effect by insinuating subtle unstated stereotypes in their work as in Gladwell's 'The Tipping Point', a tactic called 'dog whistle racism'. Observed that it is not so much 'race' that we think about, but culture: '. a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life'. Late 19th century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on 'race', ethnicity, and ' to shape new nationalist doctrines.

Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation. According to this view, is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics.

Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics.

In the case of Nordicism, the denomination 'Germanic' was equivalent to superiority of race. Bolstered by some and values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: 'Racism does not originate from the existence of 'races'. It creates them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences.' This definition explicitly ignores the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of 'A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race.'

Racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I). Ethnicity and ethnic conflicts. Further information: Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term 'racism' to refer to more general phenomena, such as and, although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources.

In some cases, and were harnessed in order to rally in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians). A mass grave being dug for frozen bodies from the 1890, in which the U.S.

Army killed 150, marking the end of the. Notions of race and racism have often played central roles in. Throughout history, when an adversary is identified as 'other' based on notions of race or ethnicity (in particular when 'other' is construed to mean 'inferior'), the means employed by the self-presumed 'superior' party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by or considerations.

According to historian Daniel Richter, saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of 'the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other.' States in his documentary, Africa: Different but Equal, that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 19th century, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas. Historically, racism was a major driving force behind the.

It was also a major force behind, especially in the in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and under; 19th and 20th century racism in is particularly well documented and constitutes a reference point in studies and discourses about racism. Racism has played a role in such as the, and, and colonial projects like the European,, and.

Have been –and are– often subject to racist attitudes. Practices and ideologies of racism are condemned by the in the. Ethnic nationalism. The 's biblical curse on, which was often misinterpreted as a curse on his father, was used to justify slavery in 19th century America. Has cited the who, in his discussion of, stated that while are free by nature, ' (non-Greeks) are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to government. Though Aristotle does not specify any particular races, he argues that people from outside Greece are more prone to the burden of slavery than those from.

While Aristotle makes remarks about the most natural slaves being those with strong bodies and slave souls (unfit for rule, unintelligent) which would seem to imply a physical basis for discrimination, he also explicitly states that the right kind of souls and bodies don't always go together, implying that the greatest determinate for inferiority and natural slaves versus natural masters is the soul, not the body. This proto-racism is seen as an important precursor to modern racism by classicist. Such proto-racism and ethnocentrism must be looked at within context, because a modern understanding of racism based on hereditary inferiority (modern racism based on: and scientific racism) was not yet developed and it is unclear whether Aristotle believed the natural inferiority of Barbarians was caused by environment and climate (like many of his contemporaries) or by birth. Historian Dante A.

Puzzo, in his discussion of Aristotle, racism, and the ancient world writes that: Racism rests on two basic assumptions: that a correlation exists between physical characteristics and moral qualities; that mankind is divisible into superior and inferior stocks. Racism, thus defined, is a modern conception, for prior to the XVIth century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the West that can be described as racist.

To prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made between racism and. The Ancient, in referring to all who were not Hebrews as, were indulging in, not in racism.. So it was with the who denominated all non-Hellenes—whether the wild or the whom they acknowledged as their mentors in the arts of —Barbarians, the term denoting that which was strange or foreign. 13th-century slave market in. Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962.

Bernard Lewis has also cited historians and geographers of the region, including,,,,, and. Though the expresses no racial prejudice, Lewis argues that ethnocentric prejudice later developed among, for a variety of reasons: their and; the influence of ideas regarding slavery, which some directed towards ( ) and; and the influence of ideas regarding divisions among humankind. The author, himself having a grandfather, wrote a book entitled Superiority of the Blacks to the Whites, and explained why the Zanj were black in terms of in the 'On the Zanj' chapter of The Essays. By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from; Lewis argues that this led to the likes of historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing: 'It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals.' According to Lewis, the 14th-century Tunisian scholar also wrote.beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings.

They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other.

They cannot be considered human beings. Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated. However, according to professor Abdelmajid Hannoum, the view that Arab scholars and geographers from this time period held racist attitudes are the result of mistranslations, stating that such attitudes were not prevalent until the 18th and 19th centuries. He argues that the mistranslations are the result of French projecting racist and views of the 19th century into their translations of medieval Arabic writings. Lindsay also argues that the concept of an itself did not exist until modern times. Limpieza de sangre.

Further information: The, with Muslim invaders overthrowing the previous rulers and creating, which contributed to the, lasting for six centuries. It was followed by the centuries-long, terminated under the and.

The legacy Catholic then formulated the doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic ' emerged in a racialized, religious and feudal context, so as to stem the upward social mobility of the converted. Robert Lacey explains: It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue.

The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin—proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a man—Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism. Following the expulsion of the Arabic and most of the from the, the remaining and were forced to to Roman Catholicism, becoming ', who were sometimes discriminated by the ' in some cities (e.g. ), despite condemnations by the Church and the State, who were welcoming the new flock.

Was carried out by members of the in order to weed out the converts that still practiced and in secret. The system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized false Christian converts from society to protect it against treason. The remnants of such legislation persevered into the 19th century in military contexts.

In, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The limpieza de sangre legislation was common also during the, where it led to the racial and feudal separation of peoples and social strata in the colonies. It was however often ignored in practice, as the new colonies needed skilled people. Advertisement for Caption reads, 'Matchless for the complexion.' Illustration of 'before and after' use of soap by black child in the bath. Showing soap washes off his dark complexion.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the discourse that identified the 'race' with the ', leading to such movements as,,, and, medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological 'races', which were thought to be the consequence of historical conquests and. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval 'historical and political discourse of race struggle'.

According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and, who gave it the modern sense of 'race' and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a ' (e.g., Nazism). On the other hand, also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real and continued to act underneath the apparent peace.

Thus, Marxists transformed the notion of 'race' into the historical notion of ', defined by socially structured positions: capitalist or proletarian. In (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the 'race struggle' discourse: 's, which opposed the concept of 'blood ', prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse. Authors such as, in her 1951 book, have said that the racist ideology ( popular racism) which developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the of foreign territories and the atrocities that sometimes accompanied them (such as the of 1904–1907 or the of 1915–1917).

's poem (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the over the rest of the world, though it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist beliefs. A late-19th-century illustration from Ireland from One or Two Neglected Points of View by H. Strickland Constable shows an alleged similarity between 'Irish Iberian' and 'Negro' features in contrast to the 'higher' 'Anglo-Teutonic.'

However, during the 19th century, Western European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the in Africa, as well as in the suppression of the in. Some Europeans during the time period objected to injustices that occurred in some colonies and lobbied on behalf of. Thus, when the was displayed in England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, published (1899), a clear criticism of the owned.

Examples of racial theories used include the creation of the group during the. It was then restricted by (1810–1877) to non-. The term Hamite was applied to different populations within North Africa, mainly comprising,,,, and the. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either or on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas. Europeans considered Hamites to be more civilized than, and more akin to themselves and. In the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the, along with the,, and the. However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to with Negroes.

In the mid-20th century, the German scholar (1857–1944) claimed that the race was formed by a merger of and races. The Hottentots ( or ) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and (San) races—both being termed nowadays as peoples. One in a series of posters attacking on the issue of black suffrage, issued during the. In the United States in the early 19th century, the was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa. The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder stating; 'unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off'. Racism spread throughout the New World in the late 19th century and early 20th century., which started in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on.

In the US during the 1860s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. In one of these racist posters (see above), a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood. Accompanying labels are: 'In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread,' and 'The white man must work to keep his children and pay his taxes.' The black man wonders, 'Whar is de use for me to work as long as dey make dese appropriations.'

Above in a cloud is an image of the 'Freedman's Bureau! Negro Estimate of Freedom!' The bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the U.S. Capitol and is inscribed 'Freedom and No Work.'

Its columns and walls are labeled, 'Candy,' 'Rum, Gin, Whiskey,' 'Sugar Plums,' 'Indolence,' 'White Women,' 'Apathy,' 'White Sugar,' 'Idleness,' and so on. On June 5, 1873, Sir, distinguished English explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a letter to: My proposal is to make the encouragement of settlements of a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race. I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law.

20th century. A from the mid-20th century labelled 'Colored' with a picture of an man drinking The Nazi party, which seized power in the and maintained a dictatorship over much of Europe until the, deemed the to be part of an Aryan ' ( Herrenvolk), who therefore had the right to expand their territory and enslave or kill members of other races deemed inferior. The racial ideology conceived by the Nazis graded humans on a scale of pure Aryan to non-Aryan, with the latter viewed as subhuman. At the top of the scale of pure Aryans were Germans and other Germanic peoples including the,, and the as well as other peoples such as some northern Italians and the French who were said to have a suitable admixture of Germanic blood.

Nazi policies labeled, and Slavs (mainly,,,, and ) as inferior non-Aryan subhumans. Jews were at the bottom of the hierarchy, considered inhuman and thus. In accordance with Nazi racial ideology, approximately six million Jews were killed in. 2.5 million, 0.5 million and 0.22–0.5 million were killed by the regime and its collaborators. The Nazis considered most to be Non-Aryan. The Nazi Party's chief racial theorist adopted the term from 's 1922 book The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-man. Slavic nations such as the Slovaks, Bulgarians and Croats who were perceived as ethnically superior to other Slavs, mostly due to pseudoscientific theories about these nations having a considerable admixture of Germanic blood.

In the secret plan ('Master Plan East') the Nazis resolved to expel, enslave, or exterminate most Slavic people to provide 'living space' for Germans, however Nazi policy towards Slavs changed during World War II due to manpower shortages which necessitated limited Slavic participation in the Waffen-SS. Significant war crimes were committed against Slavs, particularly, and had a far higher mortality rate than their American and British counterparts due to deliberate neglect and mistreatment. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million POWs, whom they viewed as 'subhuman'.

German praise for America's institutional racism was continuous throughout the early 1930s, and Nazi lawyers were advocates of the use of American models. Race based U.S. Citizenship laws and (no race mixing) directly inspired the Nazi's two principal —the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law. Hitler's 1925 memoir Mein Kampf was full of admiration for America's treatment of 'coloreds'. Nazi expansion eastward was accompanied with invocation of America's colonial expansion westward, with the accompanying actions toward the Native Americans. In 1928, Hitler praised Americans for having 'gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keeps the modest remnant under observation in a cage'.

On Nazi Germany's expansion eastward, in 1941 Hitler stated, 'Our Mississippi [the line beyond which Thomas Jefferson wanted all Indians expelled] must be the Volga.' White supremacy was dominant in the U.S.

Up to the civil rights movement. Immigration laws prior to 1965, sociologist Stephen Klineberg cited the law as clearly declaring 'that are a superior subspecies of the white race.' While anti-Asian racism was embedded in U.S.

Politics and culture in the early 20th century, were also racialized for their anticolonialism, with U.S. Officials, casting them as a 'Hindu' menace, pushing for Western imperial expansion abroad. The limited U.S. Citizenship to whites only, and in the 1923 case,, the Supreme Court ruled that high caste Hindus were not 'white persons' and were therefore racially ineligible for naturalized citizenship. It was after the that a quota of 100 Indians per year could immigrate to the U.S.

And become citizens. The dramatically opened entry to the U.S. To immigrants other than traditional Northern European and, and as a result would significantly alter the demographic mix in the U.S. A sign posted above a bar that reads 'No beer sold to Indians [Native Americans]'.,, 1941. Serious between and erupted in 1949. 's rise to power in in 1962 and his relentless persecution of 'resident aliens' led to an exodus of some 300,000. They migrated to escape and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.

The of January 12, 1964 put an end to the local dynasty. Thousands of Arabs and Indians in were massacred in riots, and thousands more were detained or fled the island. In August 1972, Ugandan President started the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans. In the same year, Amin ethnically cleansed giving them 90 days to leave the country. Shortly after World War II the South African took control of the government in. Between 1948 and 1994, the regime took place.

This regime based its ideology on the racial separation of whites and non-whites including the unequal rights of non-whites. Several protests and violence occurred during the, the most famous of these include the in 1960, the in 1976, the of 1983 and the of 1989. On 12 September 2011,, the youth leader of South Africa's ruling, was found guilty of hate speech for singing ' at a number of public events.

During the (1998–2003), were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides in the war regarded them as 'subhuman' and some say their flesh can confer magical powers.

UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of the pygmies, has asked the to recognise cannibalism as both a and an act of. A report released by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination condemns 's treatment of the ' as racist. In 2008, the tribunal of the 15-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC) accused President of having a racist attitude towards white people. The against students in,, lasted from December 1988 to January 1989. Bar owners in central had been forced by the police 'not to serve black people or Mongolians' during the, as the police associated these ethnic groups with illegal and. In November 2009, British newspaper reported that, of mixed Chinese and African parentage, had emerged as the most famous talent show contestant in China and has become the subject of intense debate because of her skin color.

Her attention in the media opened serious debates about and racial prejudice. Some 70,000 black African Mauritanians were expelled from in the late 1980s. In the, black African captives in the civil war were often, and female prisoners were often sexually abused. The has been described by some as a racial matter. In October 2006, announced that it would deport the living in the region of eastern Niger to.

This population numbered about 150,000. While the Government collected Arabs in preparation for the, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing Government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages. The burnt out remains of Govinda's Indian Restaurant in, May 2000 The many. The was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998. Resentment against workers has led to violent confrontations in Africa and Oceania. Anti-Chinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people, broke out in in May 2009.

Suffered violent attacks after the. Non-indigenous citizens of Fiji are subject to discrimination.

Racial divisions also exist in,,,, or South Africa. Peter Bouckaert, 's emergencies director, said in an interview that 'racist hatred' is the chief motivation behind the in. With the aim of preserving the demographic makeup of the state, elements within Israeli society have been accused of discriminatory behavior against the Arab population and of a darker complexion. These communities disproportionately occupy laborer positions with the workforce. Accusations of racism have also included birth control policies, education, and housing discrimination. One form of racism in the United States was enforced which existed until the 1960s when it was outlawed in the. It has been argued that this separation of races continues to exist de facto today.

The causes of segregation vary from lack of access to loans and resources to discrimination in realty. The 2016 found that, in particular, hold strong, with 82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about. In Greece 67%, in Hungary 64%, in France 61%, in Spain 49%, in Poland 47%, in the UK 45%, in Sweden 42%, in Germany 40%, and in the Netherlands 37% have an unfavourable view of Roma. Scientific racism. Drawings from and 's Indigenous races of the earth (1857), which suggested ranked between and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence. Scottish philosopher and economist said, 'I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites.

There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences.'

German philosopher stated: 'The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.' In the 19th century, the German philosopher,, declared that 'Africa is no historical part of the world.' Hegel further claimed that blacks had no 'sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent.' While opposed to slavery in the U.S, in 1858 President stated, 'I am not, nor ever have been in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, that I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people. I as much as any man am in favor of the superior position assigned to the white race'.

Austrian philosopher, claimed: 'A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of imprudence.' The German conservative,, remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: in The Hour of Decision Spengler denounced 'the 'happy ending' of an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought to jazz music and Negro dancing to perform the Death March for a great Culture.' During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand 'Aryan' agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. Scientific variants. Further information: The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term scientific racism refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the 's resistance to accounts of history and its support of, the concept that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with accounts of history.

These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with, which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of ', a term coined by in 1864, associated with ideas of competition, which were named in the 1940s. Himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in (1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the 'lowest savages' with European civilization. At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with discourses of ' of the race' and 'blood.'

[ ] Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social Darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on,,,,, and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices.

Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of (, etc.), the British school of (,, etc.), the French school of (, etc.), as well as the discovery of the, such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a in the 1960s.

According to the, the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no clear. While some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that exist in all members of one population and no members of any other. Heredity and eugenics. Further information: The first theory of was developed in 1869 by (1822–1911), who used the then popular concept of.

He applied to study human differences and the alleged ', foreshadowing future uses of ' by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer (1840–1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle,, where he linked to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics ( ) and medicine ( ) and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into ( ), ( ), and ( ). During the rise of, some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories.

A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement,, an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed.up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project that the has wished to carry through but that it had to abandon in deference to the of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of and policy. And took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race.

Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation. The, its and the extermination of Jews in, as well as in the (the ) and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war.

[ ] Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled. Polygenism and racial typologies.

Madison Grant's map, from 1916, charting the 'present distribution of European races', with the in red, the in green, and the in yellow. Works such as 's (1853–1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time. Gobineau, thus, attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of. Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by (1854–1936)'s, who published in 1899 The Aryan and his Social Role, in which he claimed that the white, ' race', ', was opposed to the 'brachycephalic' race, of whom the ' was the archetype.

Vacher de Lapouge thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the ' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the ' ' (,, etc.), and finally the ' ' (,, etc.) He assimilated races and, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the Homo europaeus, while the lower class represented the Homo alpinus. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's 'selectionism' aimed first at achieving the annihilation of, considered to be a 'degenerate'; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of.

His 'anthroposociology' thus aimed at blocking by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order. The same year, used identical racial classification in (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Other scientific authors include at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who himself as German because of his admiration for the 'Aryan race') and, a eugenicist and author of (1916).

Madison Grant provided statistics for the, which severely restricted immigration of Jews,, and southern Europeans, who were subsequently hindered in seeking to escape Nazi Germany. Sociological model of ethnic and racial conflict. Evolutionary psychologists and were puzzled by the fact that in the US race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because for most of human history, humans almost never encountered members of other races. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-and-ready indicator) for coalition membership, since a better-than-random guess about 'which side' another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance. Their colleague designed an experiment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the, they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate.

The errors that the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the 'correct' speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker 'on the same side' as the 'correct' speaker. In a second run of the experiment, the team also distinguished the 'sides' in the debate by clothing of similar colors; and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words, the first group of subjects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small. Some research suggests that ethnocentric thinking may have actually contributed to the development of cooperation. Political scientists Ross Hammond and Robert Axelrod created a computer simulation wherein virtual individuals were randomly assigned one of a variety of skin colors, and then one of a variety of trading strategies: be color-blind, favor those of your own color, or favor those of other colors. They found that the ethnocentric individuals clustered together, then grew until all the non-ethnocentric individuals were wiped out.

In, evolutionary biologist writes that 'Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of 's.' Dawkins writes that racial prejudice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, 'could be interpreted as an irrational generalization of a kin-selected tendency to identify with individuals physically resembling oneself, and to be nasty to individuals different in appearance'. Simulation-based experiments in have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes. Despite support for evolutionary theories relating to an innate origin of racism, various studies have suggested racism is associated with lower intelligence and less diverse peer groups during childhood.

A neuroimaging study on amygdala activity during racial matching activities found increased activity to be associated with adolescent age as well as less racially diverse peer groups which the author conclude suggest an learned aspect of racism. A meta analysis of neuroimaging studies found amygdala activity correlated to increased scores on implicit measures of racial bias.

It was also argued amygdala activity in response to racial stimuli represents increased threat perception rather than the traditional theory of the amygdala activity represented ingroup-outgroup processing. Racism has also been associated with lower childhood IQ in an analysis of 15,000 people in the UK.

State-sponsored racism. 1935 Chart from Nazi Germany used to explain the, defining which Germans were to be considered Jews and stripped of their citizenship. Germans with three or more Jewish grandparents were defined as Jews, Germans with one or two Jewish grandparents were deemed Mischling (mixed-blood).

—that is, the institutions and practices of a nation-state that are grounded in racist ideology—has played a major role in all instances of, from the to. It also played a prominent role in the regime, in regimes throughout, and during the early years of Japan's.

These governments advocated and implemented ideologies and policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in the case of, genocidal. The politics of Zimbabwe promote discrimination against whites, in an effort to ethnically cleanse the country. The of 1935 prohibited sexual relations between any Aryan and Jew, considering it, 'racial pollution'. The Nuremberg Laws stripped all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews (second and first degree Mischlings), of their German citizenship. This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g.,. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them from having any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry. On 15 November 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools.

By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their rights as human beings; they were in many ways officially separated from the German populace. Similar laws existed in –,,, and. 19th century: kicks out the, referring to the.

Legislative state racism is known to have been enforced by the of during its regime between 1948 and 1994. Here a series of was passed through the legal systems to make it legal for white South Africans to have rights which were superior to those of non-white South Africans. Non-white South Africans were not allowed involvement in any governing matters, including voting; access to quality healthcare; the provision of basic services, including clean water; electricity; as well as access to adequate schooling. Non-white South Africans were also prevented from accessing certain public areas, from using certain public transportation and were required to live only in certain designated areas. Single Collection Et King Raregroove. Non-white South Africans were taxed differently than white South Africans and they were also required to carry on them at all times additional documentation, which later became known as 'dom passes', to certify their non-white South African citizenship.

All of these legislative racial laws were abolished through a series of equal laws which were passed at the end of the era in the early 1990s. The current, as enacted in 1984, is racist in its Article 27, because it does not allow non-blacks to become Liberian citizens: 'only persons who are Negroes or of Negro descent shall qualify by birth or by naturalization to be citizens of Liberia'. An anti-racism rally held outside, December 2005.

Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies which are adopted or developed in order to oppose racism. In general, it promotes an egalitarian society in which people are not discriminated against on the basis of race. Movements such as the and the were examples of anti-racist movements. Is sometimes embraced as an element of anti-racist movements, although this was not always the case. Laws,, and bans on racist speech are also examples of government policy which is intended to suppress racism. International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination marks March 21 as the yearly, in memory of the events that occurred on March 21, 1960 in,, where police killed demonstrators protesting against the regime. Teaching about racism The offers children and adults an opportunity to interact with authentic artifacts from the.

Disseminates materials to teachers to help them educate their students about the causes and effects of racism.